Automation of production and production processes. Stages and means of production automation

Introduction

In order for various technical devices to perform the required functions, it is necessary to organize one or another control process. The control process can be implemented “manually” or using a set of technical means, which, in general case, are called automatic control systems,

Automatic control systems in agricultural production and product processing are designed to control the operating modes of equipment, greenhouses, refrigeration units, etc. A special feature of these systems is working with biological objects, animals, plants and their processed products.

The need for implementation and development of automatic control systems contributed to the creation of a separate scientific and technical direction, which includes the element base, theoretical issues of analysis and synthesis, design issues and ensuring the required reliability. At the same time, this separate direction has a close connection with electronics, electrical engineering, mathematics and other areas of science and technology. Scientists N.N. Bogolyubov, I.F. Borodin, N. Wiener, N. E. Zhukovsky, A. N. Kolmogorov, N. M. Krylov, A. V. Mikhailov, G. Nyquist contributed to the development of automation systems , V.D. Shepovalov, S.A. Chaplygin, and many other scientists.

The subject of the discipline "Automation" is the theoretical foundations and technical means of automation.

Fundamentals of automatic control theory

Lecture 1. "Principles of building automated production"

Automation of production

Automation- a branch of science and technology, covering the theory and design of means and systems for automatic control of machines and technological processes. It arose in the 19th century with the advent of mechanized production based on spinning and weaving machines, steam engines, etc., which replaced manual labor and made it possible to increase it performance.

Automation is always preceded by a process of complete mechanization - a production process in which a person does not expend physical strength to perform operations.

As technology developed, the functions of controlling processes and machines expanded and became more complex. In many cases, humans were no longer able to manage mechanized production without special additional devices. This led to the emergence of automated production, in which workers are freed not only from physical labor, but also from the functions of monitoring and managing machines, equipment, production processes and operations.

Under automation production processes understand a set of technical measures to develop new technological processes and create production based on high-performance equipment that performs all basic operations without direct human participation.

Automation contributes to a significant increase in labor productivity, improvement of product quality and working conditions for people

IN agriculture, the food and processing industry automates the control and management of temperature, humidity, pressure, speed control and movement, quality sorting, packaging and many other processes and operations, ensuring their higher efficiency, saving labor and money.

Automated production compared to non-automated ones has certain specifics:

To be more effective they must cover more heterogeneous operations;

· careful study of the technology is required, analysis of production facilities, traffic routes and operations, ensuring the reliability of the process with a given quality;

· with a wide range of products and dull work, technological solutions can be multivariate;

· the requirements for clear and coordinated work of various production services are increasing.

When designing automated production, the following principles must be observed:

1. The principle of completeness. You should strive to perform all operations within one automated production system without intermediate transfer of semi-finished products

to other departments. To implement this principle it is necessary to ensure:

Manufacturability of the product, i.e. its production should require a minimum amount of materials, time and money:

Unification of product processing and control methods;

Expansion of the type of equipment with increased technological capabilities for processing several types of raw materials or semi-finished products.

2. The principle of low-operation technology. The number of intermediate processing operations of raw materials and semi-finished products should be minimized, and their supply routes should be optimized.

3. The principle of low-people technology. Ensuring automatic operation throughout the entire product manufacturing cycle. To do this, it is necessary to stabilize the quality of input raw materials, increase the reliability of equipment and information support for the process.

4. The principle of non-debugging technology. The control object should not require additional adjustment work after it is put into operation.

5. The principle of optimality. All management objects and production services are subject to a single optimality criterion, for example, to produce only the highest quality products.

6. The principle of group technology. Provides production flexibility, i.e. the ability to switch from the release of one product to the release of another. The principle is based on the commonality of operations, their combinations and recipes.

Serial and small-scale production is characterized by the creation of automated systems from universal and modular equipment with interoperational tanks. Depending on the product being processed, this equipment can be adjusted.

For large-scale and mass production of products, automated production is created from special equipment united by a rigid connection. In such industries, high-performance equipment is used, for example, rotary equipment for filling liquids into bottles or bags.

For the operation of equipment, intermediate transport for raw materials, semi-finished products, components, and various media is required.

Depending on the intermediate transport, automated production can be:

With end-to-end transportation without rearranging raw materials, semi-finished products or media;

With rearrangement of raw materials, semi-finished products or media;

With intermediate capacity.

Automated production is distinguished by types of equipment layout (aggregation):

Single-threaded;

Parallel aggregation;

Multi-threaded.

In single-flow equipment, equipment is located sequentially along the flow of operations. To increase the productivity of single-threaded production, an operation can be performed on the same type of equipment in parallel.

In multi-threaded production, each thread performs similar functions but operates independently of one another.

A feature of agricultural production and processing of products is the rapid decline in their quality, for example, after the slaughter of livestock or the removal of fruits from trees. This requires equipment that would have high mobility (the ability to produce a wide range of products from the same type of raw materials and processing various types raw materials on the same type of equipment).

For this purpose, reconfigurable production systems are created that have the property of automated reconfiguration. The organizational module of such systems is a production module, an automated line, an automated section or a workshop.

Production module refers to a system consisting of a unit of technological equipment equipped with an automated program control device and automation equipment technological process, operating autonomously and having the ability to be integrated into a higher-level system (Fig. 1.1).

1- equipment for performing one or more operations; 2- control device; 3- loading and unloading device; 4- transport and storage device (intermediate capacity); 5- control and measuring system

Figure 1.1 - Structure of the production module

The production module may include, for example, a drying chamber, an instrumentation system, a locally controlled handling and transport system, or a mixing plant with similar additional equipment.

A special case of a production module is production cell - a combination of modules with a unified system for measuring equipment operating modes, transport, storage and loading and unloading systems (Fig. 1.2). The production cell can be integrated into higher-level systems.

1- equipment for performing one or more operations; 2- receiving hopper; 3-loading and unloading device; 4- conveyor; 5 - intermediate container; 6- control computer; 7- control and measuring system.

Figure 1.2 - Structure of a production cell

Automated line- a reconfigurable system consisting of several production modules or cells united by a single transport and warehouse system and an automatic process control system (APCS). The equipment of the automated line is located in the accepted sequence of technological operations. The structure of the automated line is shown in Fig. 1.3.

1,2,3,4 - production cells and modules; 5- transport system; 6-warehouse; 7- control computer.

Figure 1.3 - Structure of the automated line

In contrast to an automated line, a reconfigurable automated section allows for the possibility of changing the sequence of use of technological equipment. A line and a section may have separately functioning units of technological equipment. The structure of the automated section is shown in Fig. 1.4.

1,2,3 - automated lines; 4- production cells; 5- production modules; 6- warehouse; 7- control computer

Figure 1.4 - Structure of the automated section

Automation of production processes is the main direction along which production is currently moving throughout the world. Everything that was previously performed by man himself, his functions, not only physical, but also intellectual, are gradually transferred to technology, which itself carries out technological cycles and controls them. This is the general direction now modern technologies. The role of a person in many industries is already reduced to only a controller behind an automatic controller.

In general, the concept of “process control” is understood as a set of operations necessary to start, stop the process, as well as maintain or change in the required direction physical quantities(process indicators). Individual machines, units, devices, devices, complexes of machines and devices that carry out technological processes that need to be controlled are called control objects or controlled objects in automation. Managed objects are very diverse in their purpose.

Automation of technological processes– replacement of human physical labor spent on controlling mechanisms and machines with the work of special devices that ensure this control (regulation of various parameters, obtaining a given productivity and product quality without human intervention).

Automation of production processes makes it possible to increase labor productivity many times over, increase its safety, environmental friendliness, improve product quality and make more efficient use of production resources, including human potential.

Any technological process is created and carried out to achieve a specific goal. Manufacturing the final product, or to obtain an intermediate result. Thus, the purpose of automated production can be sorting, transportation, and packaging of products. Automation of production can be complete, complex or partial.

Partial automation occurs when one operation or a separate production cycle is carried out automatically. At the same time, limited human participation in it is allowed. Most often, partial automation occurs when the process proceeds too quickly for a person to fully participate in it, while fairly primitive mechanical devices driven by electrical equipment cope with it perfectly.

Partial automation, as a rule, is used on existing equipment and is an addition to it. However, it is most effective when included in common system automation from the very beginning - is immediately developed, manufactured and installed as its integral part.

Comprehensive automation should cover a separate large production area, this could be a separate workshop or power plant. In this case, the entire production operates in the mode of a single interconnected automated complex. Complex automation of production processes is not always advisable. Its field of application is modern highly developed production, which uses extremelyreliable equipment.

The breakdown of one of the machines or units immediately stops the entire production cycle. Such production must have self-regulation and self-organization, which is carried out according to a previously created program. In this case, a person takes part in the production process only as a permanent controller, monitoring the state of the entire system and its individual parts, and intervenes in production for start-up and when emergency situations arise, or when there is a threat of such an occurrence.

The highest level of automation of production processes – full automation. With it, the system itself carries out not only the production process, but also complete control over it, which is carried out by automatic control systems. Full automation is advisable in cost-effective, sustainable production with established technological processes with a constant operating mode.

All possible deviations from the norm must be previously foreseen, and systems for protecting against them must be developed. Full automation is also necessary for work that may threaten human life, his health, or is carried out in places inaccessible to him - under water, in an aggressive environment, in space.

Each system consists of components that perform specific functions. In an automated system, sensors take readings and transmit them to make a decision on system control; the command is carried out by the drive. Most often this is electrical equipment, since it is more expedient to carry out commands with the help of electric current.

It is necessary to distinguish between automated control systems and automatic ones. At automated control system the sensors transmit readings to the operator’s console, and he, having made a decision, transmits the command to the executive equipment. At automatic system– the signal is analyzed by electronic devices, and after making a decision, they give a command to the executing devices.

Human participation in automatic systems is still necessary, albeit as a controller. He has the ability to intervene in the technological process at any time, correct it or stop it.

So, the temperature sensor may fail and give incorrect readings. In this case, electronics will perceive its data as reliable without questioning it.

The human mind is many times greater than its capabilities electronic devices, although it is inferior to them in terms of response speed. The operator can understand that the sensor is faulty, assess the risks, and simply turn it off without interrupting the process. At the same time, he must be completely confident that this will not lead to an accident. Experience and intuition, which are inaccessible to machines, help him make a decision.

Such targeted intervention in automatic systems does not carry any serious risks if the decision is made by a professional. However, turning off all automation and switching the system to manual control mode is fraught with serious consequences due to the fact that a person cannot quickly respond to changing conditions.

A classic example is the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, which became the largest man-made disaster last century. It occurred precisely because the automatic mode was turned off, when the already developed programs to prevent emergency situations could not influence the development of the situation in the plant’s reactor.

Automation of individual processes began in industry back in the nineteenth century. Suffice it to recall the automatic centrifugal regulator for steam engines designed by Watt. But only with the beginning of the industrial use of electricity did wider automation, not of individual processes, but of entire technological cycles, become possible. This is due to the fact that previously mechanical force was transmitted to machines using transmissions and drives.

Centralized production of electricity and its use in industry, by and large, began only in the twentieth century - before the First World War, when each machine was equipped with its own electric motor. It was this circumstance that made it possible to mechanize not only the production process on the machine, but also to mechanize its control. This was the first step towards creating automatic machines. The first samples of which appeared in the early 1930s. Then the term “automated production” itself arose.

In Russia - then still in the USSR - the first steps in this direction were taken in the 30-40s of the last century. For the first time, automatic machines were used in the production of bearing parts. Then came the world's first fully automated production of pistons for tractor engines.

Technological cycles were combined into a single automated process, starting with the loading of raw materials and ending with the packaging of finished parts. This became possible thanks to the widespread use of modern electrical equipment at that time, various relays, remote switches, and of course, drives.

And only the advent of the first electronic computers made it possible to reach a new level of automation. Now the technological process has ceased to be considered as simply a collection of individual operations that must be performed in a certain sequence to obtain a result. Now the whole process has become one.

Currently, automatic control systems not only conduct the production process, but also control it and monitor the occurrence of abnormal and emergency situations. They start and stop technological equipment, monitor overloads, and work out actions in case of accidents.

IN lately automatic control systems make it quite easy to rebuild equipment to produce new products. This is already a whole system, consisting of separate automatic multi-mode systems connected to a central computer, which links them into a single network and issues tasks for execution.

Each subsystem is a separate computer with its own software designed to perform its own tasks. It's already flexible production modules. They are called flexible because they can be reconfigured for other technological processes and thereby expand production and diversify it.

The pinnacle of automated production is. Automation has permeated production from top to bottom. The transport line for the delivery of raw materials for production operates automatically. Automated management and design. Human experience and intelligence are used only where electronics cannot replace it.

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Automated production processes are processes in which the main work on the manufacture of products is fully automated, and auxiliary work is fully or partially automated. The functions of the worker are reduced to monitoring and controlling the operation of automatic machines, loading and unloading raw materials. finished products.

A comprehensively automated production process is described by the following equations.

Automated production processes are understood as those in which the main work on the manufacture of products is fully automated, and auxiliary work is fully or partially automated.

Automated production processes are understood as those in which the main work on the manufacture of products is fully automated, and auxiliary work is fully or partially automated. The functions of the worker are reduced to monitoring and controlling the operation of automatic machines, loading raw materials and unloading finished products.

This approach to automated production processes has many advantages. The fact that they are cheap and pay for themselves quickly makes them very easy to push through to the top brass. One of the most striking management arguments against the introduction of large automatic installations is that the demand for a product may change before the automatic installation designed for it is put into operation.

The most important stage in creating an automated production process is the selection of the most appropriate technological process option.

Optimal technological options for manufacturing finished products should serve as the basis for an automated production process. The name Mechanical Engineering Technology is currently incorrectly attributed to existing courses and educational specialties, which are essentially cutting processing.

In modern industrial enterprises, in metallurgical, chemical, oil refining and other industries with automated production processes, measuring technology is used mainly for monitoring production processes (their parameters), combined with automatic regulation and control, and quality control of products. Although control of the production process, carried out through one or another of its parameters, pursues a different goal than measuring individual quantities, namely, checking the degree (within established limits) of fulfillment of specified modes (parameters), nevertheless, the control process has much in common with measurement as in methodology and equipment. An example is measuring transducers, which convert all kinds of non-electrical quantities into electrical ones and are widely used in both measurement and control. In addition, in devices used for control, in some cases, measurements are carried out if, for example, it is necessary to know the numerical values of the controlled parameter and its changes over time.

In many cases, when conducting various kinds of scientific experimental research, testing new types of equipment, as well as when monitoring automated production processes, documentary recording of the values over time of controlled non-electrical quantities is used. In these cases, instead of an indicator device, a device is used that registers (records) the electrical signals arriving at its input. The most widely used are magnetic and oscillographic recordings of electrical signals.

Since automation contains the possibility of increasing technical and economic indicators, when developing a control algorithm one must strive to ensure that the automated production process proceeds optimally. This means that, other things being equal, the productivity of the equipment should be maximum, the quality of the resulting products should be high, energy costs should be minimal and, as a consequence, the cost of the finished product should be low.

Each unit should, if possible, have the smallest dimensions, weight and cost; the design of the converter must be technologically advanced, allow the use of automated production processes in its manufacture and provide favorable conditions for operation.

Previously, when production processes were not automated, and technology was largely based on the experience and skills of people, when measuring technology was not as developed as it is now, attempts to clearly comprehend the search for the most reasonable optimal solutions, and even more so, attempts to build optimal systems were pointless. Now the issues of constructing scientifically based and automated production processes are becoming relevant. Consequently, the role of the optimum problem, the problem of choosing the single most rational solution, increases.

Automation of production processes lies in the fact that part of the functions of management, regulation and control of technological complexes is carried out not by people, but by robotic mechanisms and information systems. In fact, it can be called the main production idea of the 21st century.

Principles

At all levels of the enterprise, the principles of automation of production processes are the same and uniform, although they differ in the scale of the approach to solving technological and management problems. These principles ensure that the required work is carried out efficiently and automatically.

The principle of consistency and flexibility

All activities within a single computerized system must be coordinated with each other and with similar positions in related areas. Full automation of operational, production and technological processes is achieved due to the commonality of the operations performed, recipes, schedules and optimal combination techniques. Failure to comply with this principle will compromise the flexibility of production and the integrated execution of the entire process.

Features of flexible automated technologies

The use of flexible production systems is a key trend in modern automation. As part of their action, technological optimization is carried out due to the coordinated operation of all system elements and the ability to quickly replace tools. The methods used make it possible to effectively rebuild existing complexes to new principles without significant costs.

Creation and structure

Depending on the level of production development, automation flexibility is achieved through the coordinated and integrated interaction of all system elements: manipulators, microprocessors, robots, etc. Moreover, in addition to mechanized production of products, transport, warehouse and other divisions of the enterprise are involved in these processes.

The principle of completeness

An ideal automated production system should be a complete cyclic process without intermediate transfer of products to other departments. High-quality implementation of this principle is ensured by:

multifunctionality of the equipment, which allows processing several types of raw materials at once in one unit of time;
the manufacturability of the manufactured product by reducing the required resources;
unification of production methods;
a minimum of additional adjustment work after the equipment is put into operation.

The principle of comprehensive integration

The degree of automation depends on the interaction of production processes with each other and with outside world, as well as the speed of integration of a particular technology into the overall organizational environment.

Independent Execution Principle

Modern automated systems operate on the principle: “Don’t interfere with the machine’s work.” In fact, all processes during the production cycle must be carried out without human intervention, with only minimal human control allowed.

Objects

You can automate production in any field of activity, but computerization works most effectively in complex monotonous processes. Such operations occur in:

light and heavy industry;
fuel and energy complex;
agriculture;
trade;
medicine, etc.

Machineization helps in technical diagnostics, scientific and research activities within a separate enterprise.

Goals

The introduction of automated tools in production that can improve technological processes is a key guarantee of progressive and efficient work. The key goals of automation of production processes include:

staff reduction;
increasing labor productivity due to maximum automation;
expansion of the product line;
growth in production volumes;
improving the quality of goods;
reduction of the consumption component;
creation of environmentally friendly production by reducing harmful emissions into the atmosphere;
implementation high technology in the normal production cycle with minimal costs;
increasing the safety of technological processes.

When these goals are achieved, the enterprise receives a lot of benefits from the implementation of mechanized systems and recoups the costs of automation (subject to stable demand for products).

High-quality implementation of the assigned mechanization tasks is determined by the implementation of:

modern automated tools;
individually developed computerization methods.

The degree of automation depends on the integration of innovative equipment into the existing technological chain. The level of implementation is assessed individually depending on the characteristics of a particular production.

Components

The following elements are considered as part of a unified automated production environment at the enterprise:

design systems used to develop new products and technical documentation;
machines with program control based on microprocessors;
industrial robotic complexes and technological robots;
computerized quality control system at the enterprise;
technologically advanced warehouses with special lifting and transport equipment;
general automated production control system (APCS).

Strategy

Compliance with an automation strategy helps to improve the entire range of necessary processes and obtain maximum benefits from the implementation of computer systems in the enterprise. Only those processes that have been fully studied and analyzed can be automated, since the program developed for the system must include different variations of one action depending on factors external environment, quantity of resources and quality of execution of all stages of production.

After defining the concept, studying and analyzing technological processes, the turn of optimization comes. It is necessary to qualitatively simplify the structure by removing from the system processes that do not bring any value. If possible, you need to reduce the number of actions performed by combining some operations into one. The simpler the structural order, the easier it is to computerize it. After simplifying the systems, you can begin to automate production processes.

Design

Design is a key stage in the automation of production processes, without which it is impossible to introduce comprehensive mechanization and computerization in production. Within its framework, a special diagram is created that displays the structure, parameters and key characteristics of the devices used. The scheme typically consists of the following points:

scale of automation (described separately for the entire enterprise and for individual production departments);
determination of control parameters for the operation of devices, which will subsequently act as verification markers;
description of control systems;
configuration of the location of automated means;
information about equipment blocking (in what cases it is applicable, how and by whom it will be launched in the event of an emergency).

Classification

There are several classifications of enterprise computerization processes, but it is most effective to separate these systems depending on their degree of implementation in the overall production cycle. On this basis, automation can be:

partial;
complex;
complete.

These varieties are just levels of production automation, which depend on the size of the enterprise and the volume of technological work.

Partial automation is a set of operations to improve production, within which one action is mechanized. It does not require the formation of a complex management complex and complete integration of related systems. At this level of computerization, human participation is allowed (not always to a limited extent).

Comprehensive automation allows you to optimize the work of a large production unit in a single complex mode. Its use is justified only within a large innovative enterprise, where the most reliable equipment is used, since the breakdown of even one machine risks stopping the entire working line.

Full automation is a set of processes that ensure independent operation of the entire system, incl. production management. Its implementation is the most expensive, so this system is used in large enterprises in conditions of profitable and stable production. At this stage, human participation is minimized. Most often, it consists of monitoring the system (for example, checking sensor readings, troubleshooting minor problems, etc.).

Advantages

Automated processes increase the speed of cyclic operations, ensure their accuracy and safety, regardless of environmental factors. By eliminating the human factor, the number of possible errors and the quality of work improves. In case of typical situations, the program remembers the algorithm of actions and applies it with maximum efficiency.

Automation allows you to increase the accuracy of managing business processes in production by covering a large amount of information, which is simply impossible in the absence of mechanization. Computerized equipment can perform several technological operations simultaneously without compromising the quality of the process and the accuracy of calculations.

The concept of process automation is inextricably linked with the global technological process. Without the introduction of computerization systems it is impossible modern development individual divisions and the entire enterprise as a whole. Mechanization of production makes it possible to most effectively improve the quality of finished products, expand the range of types of goods offered and increase production volume.

Conference on production automation November 28, 2017 in Moscow

Chapter 1. Principles of building automated production

Part 1. Fundamentals of the theory of automatic control

Automation– a branch of science and technology, covering the theory and design of means and systems for automatic control of machines and technological processes. It arose in the 19th century with the advent of mechanized production based on spinning and weaving machines, steam engines, etc., which replaced manual labor and made it possible to increase its productivity.

Automation is always preceded by a process of complete mechanization - a production process in which a person does not expend physical strength to perform operations.

Automation of production processes is understood as a set of technical measures for the development of new technological processes and the creation of production based on high-performance equipment that performs all basic operations without direct human participation.

Automation contributes to a significant increase in labor productivity, improvement of product quality and working conditions for people.

In the agriculture, food and processing industries, the control and management of temperature, humidity, pressure, speed control and movement, quality sorting, packaging and many other processes and operations are automated, ensuring their higher efficiency, saving labor and money.

Automated production compared to non-automated ones has certain specifics:

To improve efficiency, they must cover a larger number of heterogeneous operations;

A thorough study of the technology is required, analysis of production facilities, traffic routes and operations, ensuring the reliability of the process with a given quality;

With a wide range of products and seasonality of work, technological solutions can be multivariate;

The requirements for clear and coordinated work of various production services are increasing.

When designing automated production, the following principles must be observed:

1. The principle of completeness. You should strive to perform all operations within one automated production system without intermediate transfer of semi-finished products to other departments. To implement this principle it is necessary to ensure:

Manufacturability of the product, i.e. its production should require a minimum amount of materials, time and money;

Unification of product processing and control methods;

Expansion of the type of equipment with increased technological capabilities for processing several types of raw materials or semi-finished products.

4. The principle of non-debugging technology. The control object should not require additional adjustment work after it is put into operation.

5. The principle of optimality. All management objects and production services are subject to a single optimality criterion, for example, to produce only the highest quality products.

For the operation of equipment, intermediate transport for raw materials, semi-finished products, components, and various media is required.

Depending on the intermediate transport, automated production can be:

With end-to-end transportation without rearranging raw materials, semi-finished products or media;

With rearrangement of raw materials, semi-finished products or media;

With intermediate capacity.

Automated production is distinguished by types of equipment layout (aggregation):

Single-threaded;

Parallel aggregation;

Multi-threaded.

In multi-threaded production, each thread performs similar functions but operates independently of one another.

A feature of agricultural production and processing of products is the rapid decline in their quality, for example, after the slaughter of livestock or the removal of fruits from trees. This requires equipment that has high mobility (the ability to produce a wide range of products from the same type of raw materials and process different types of raw materials using the same type of equipment).

Production module they call a system consisting of a unit of technological equipment equipped with an automated program control device and process automation tools, operating autonomously and having the ability to be integrated into a higher-level system (Fig. 1.1).

Figure 1.1 – Structure of the production module: 1- equipment for performing one or more operations; 2- control device; 3- loading and unloading device; 4- transport and storage device (intermediate capacity); 5- control and measuring system.

The production module may include, for example, a drying chamber, an instrumentation system, a locally controlled handling and transport system, or a mixing plant with similar additional equipment.

A special case of a production module is production cell– a combination of modules with a unified system for measuring equipment operating modes, transport and storage and loading and unloading systems (Fig. 1.2). The production cell can be integrated into higher-level systems.

Figure 1.2 – Structure of a production cell: 1- equipment to perform one or more operations; 2- receiving hopper; 3-loading and unloading device; 4- conveyor; 5 - intermediate container; 6- control computer; 7- control and measuring system.