Brunelleschi Filippo: architect, sculptor, Renaissance architect. Florentine architectural genius Filippo Brunelleschi architectural structures

At the beginning of the 15th century, Florence surpassed all major European cities in population, standard of living, and development of trade and crafts. But in the city itself there was an insoluble problem. For more than a century, the city's symbol, the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, remained decapitated.

The cathedral, according to the project of the architect Arnolfo di Cambio, was supposed to delight with its wealth and splendor so that it would be impossible to create anything more majestic and beautiful with human hands.

The project included the construction of the largest dome in the world, but it turned out to be impossible to implement the plan. The octagonal vault planned by Arnolfo di Cambio was so massive that it would inevitably collapse under its own weight. In addition, there was the problem of erecting scaffolding, for which there would not be enough trees from all of Tuscany, not to mention the prohibitive cost of the project.

In a word, solving this problem required not just a brave, but a brilliant engineer and architect, obsessed with his ideas. This is exactly what Filippo Brunelleschi was, a sculptor, jeweler, engineer and architect from Florence.

His creative path began with defeat: in 1401 he, along with the most eminent masters of Europe, participated in a city competition to create the best bronze relief for the gate of the Baptistery of San Giovanni, an ancient and revered Florentine temple facing cathedral. The best then turned out to be Lorenzo Ghiberti: it was he who received the order to create the bronze northern gate (later he would create the famous Gate of Heaven, the eastern gate, an absolute masterpiece early Renaissance, which we will definitely tell you about).

Proud and wayward Brunelleschi refuses the offer of the customers (members of the city council and representatives of the guild of merchants and cloth dyers) to work on the gate according to the design and under the supervision of Ghiberti and decides to leave Florence, moving to Rome for several years. He sells a small estate in Settignano, a suburb of Florence, and sets off on the road with the proceeds. His friend, the young sculptor Donatello, travels with him.

Filippo Brunelleschi would return to Florence a few years later, forgetting about the defeat. His ideas will produce a real revolution, he will create the architecture of the New Age, lay the foundations of linear perspective in painting and go down in history as the creator of the dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore.Admiring contemporaries will say about him: “He lost the battle, but won the war.”

Rome was an unusual attraction for both Brunelleschi and Donatello. The first sought to study ancient architecture, the second dreamed of comprehending the secrets ancient sculpture. The great city, lying in ruins and in desolation, amazed both of them so much that they would spend the next few years in continuous study.

Donatello and Brunelleschi worked tirelessly, and during their stay in Rome they did not leave a single ancient building or sculpture unattended. They endlessly examined, sketched and measured everything that came their way. They were interested in technology, materials, techniques known in ancient times.

Filippo Brunelleschi returns to Florence inspired and full of the most daring ideas. Years of studying the heritage of antiquity revealed to him knowledge lost in the Middle Ages. It seemed that he could clearly see in his imagination the whole of Rome with its magnificent buildings as it was before the destruction.

This is how Brunelleschi came closer to realizing his most daring idea. The idea of ​​​​building a dome came to him while still in Rome, and he, keeping it secret, worked on it every day. He studied and sketched all the ancient vaults, paying special attention to the Pantheon with its huge dome, which had no supports.

Returning to Florence, he secretly made models and devices for building the dome for many months. Gradually his plan became more clear; he literally saw the dome built in his imagination.

Meanwhile, desperate members of the city council in 1418 announced a competition for the best engineering solution. In Florence, architects once again gathered, not only from Tuscany and Italy, but also from all over Europe, in order to decide, after discussing all the projects, who is worthy of this work.

And so at the council a variety of assumptions were made, many of which seemed crazy. So one proposed to lay pillars on the ground that would support the arches on which the structure would rest, another proposed to create a dome from light tuff, the third wanted to build an earthen embankment inside the cathedral, which could be used instead of scaffolding, and mix coins into the ground so that At the end of the work, the embankment would have been dismantled by the Florentines themselves. Some agreed to build a hipped vault, similar to the one that crowns the Baptistery of San Giovanni.

When it was Brunelleschi's turn, he proposed to the council a design for a double dome, which could be erected without bulky scaffolding and huge costs.

According to Vasari, Brunelleschi said: “Gentlemen, rest assured that there is no possibility of erecting this vault otherwise than I say; and no matter how much you laugh at me, you will be convinced that it should not and cannot be done any other way.If it is to be erected as I have planned, it is necessary that it be double, with internal and external vaults, so that it is possible to pass between both. And at the corners of all eight slopes, the building should be interlocked with teeth in the thickness of the masonry and in the same way surrounded by a crown of oak beams along all edges.In addition, you need to think about light, stairs and drains through which water could drain during rain. And none of you thought that you would have to take into account the need for internal scaffolding for the execution of mosaics and many other difficult works. I know that there is no other way and no other way to build it than the one that I have outlined.”

But to everyone present, this idea seemed like nothing more than another impracticable madness. She only caused laughter, and he himself was considered crazy.To prove his words, Filippo could present a model he created, which he kept with him. But he was afraid to demonstrate his idea for fear of theft.Brunelleschi did not abandon his project, but, having become even more confident in it, began to explain it in parts and in private conversations with members of the council. So, one by one, he convinced the whole city that he was right.

On August 1, 1420, work began on the construction of the dome according to the design of Filippo Brunelleschi.

Vasari writes about how the work progressed: “The building had already grown to such a height that it was the greatest difficulty, having once risen, then returned to the ground again; and the masters lost a lot of time when they went out to eat and drink, and suffered greatly from the heat of the day. And so Filippo arranged that dining rooms with kitchens were opened on the dome and that wine was sold there; thus, no one left work until the evening, which was convenient for them and extremely useful for the business.Seeing that the work was going well and was going well, Filippo was so inspired that he worked tirelessly. He himself went to brick factories where bricks were kneaded, in order to see and knead the clay for himself, and when they were fired, with his own hand, he selected the bricks with the greatest diligence. He supervised the stonemasons to ensure that the stones were crack-free and strong, and gave them models of struts and joints made of wood, wax, or even rutabaga; he did the same with the blacksmiths.”

The genius and simplicity of the idea was that the double structure, connected by ribs and hoops, was conceived as a system that supported itself. A special way of laying bricks gave additional strength to the structure. The double vault, assembled from eight sides, must be fastened with a lantern for loading to prevent collapse.

Filippo made a model of this lantern and, having lived to old age, and realizing that he might not see the dome finished, he bequeathed that the lantern be built according to his design, which happened by 1470.

Many centuries have passed since then, but Brunelleschi’s dome still towers over the city today and never ceases to amaze with its ideal beauty and ingenious simplicity.

Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) - great Italian architect, sculptor of the Renaissance and one of the creators of the scientific theory of perspective.

Author of the competition relief "The Sacrifice of Isaac" for the doors of the Florentine Baptistery (1401, National Museum, Florence). The octagonal majestic dome of the Florence Cathedral (1420-36) erected by Brunelleschi is the first major monument of Renaissance architecture and an achievement engineering in Italy. In its buildings (the Old Sacristy Church of San Lorenzo, completed in 1428; the centric Pazzi Chapel in the courtyard of the monastery of Santa Croce, begun in 1429; the basilica churches of San Lorenzo, 1422-46, and Santo Spirito, begun in 1444; orphanage , the so-called Ospedale degli Innocenti, 1421-44; the central part of Palazzo Pitti, begun in 1440) Brunelleschi was one of the first in Italian architecture to creatively comprehend and originally interpret the ancient order system. The humanism and poetry of Brunelleschi's creativity, the harmonious proportionality, lightness and grace of his buildings, which retain their connection with the Gothic traditions, the creative freedom and scientific validity of his plans determined Brunelleschi's great influence on the subsequent development of Renaissance architecture.

Breaking with Gothic, Brunelleschi relied not so much on ancient classics as on the architecture of the Proto-Renaissance and the national tradition of Italian architecture, which preserved classical elements throughout the Middle Ages. Brunelleschi's work stands at the turn of two eras: at the same time it completes the tradition of the Proto-Renaissance and lays the foundation for a new path in the development of architecture.

At the beginning of the 15th century, Florentine rulers, guild organizations and merchant guilds paid great attention to completing the construction and decoration of the Florentine Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore. Basically the building had already been erected, but the huge dome planned in the 14th century was not realized. Since 1404, Brunelleschi has been involved in the design of the dome. He eventually received an order to do the work; becomes a leader. The main difficulty that faced the master was caused by the gigantic size of the span of the middle cross (over 48 meters), which required special efforts to facilitate the expansion. By applying an ingenious design, Brunelleschi solved the problem by creating, in the words of Leon Battista Alberta, "a most ingenious invention, which is truly as incredible in our time as it may have been unknown and inaccessible to the ancients." The dome was begun in 1420 and completed in 1436 without a lantern, completed according to Brunelleschi's drawings after the death of the master. This work of the Florentine architect marked the beginning of the construction of domed churches Italian Renaissance, right up to St. Peter's Basilica, topped by Michelangelo's dome.

The first monument of the new style and the most early work Brunelleschi's work in civil engineering is the home of the Ospedale degli Innocenti orphanage (hospital) in Piazza Santissima Annunziata (1419-1445). At the first glance at this building, one is struck by its significant and fundamental difference from Gothic buildings. The emphasized horizontality of the facade, the lower floor of which is occupied by a loggia opening onto the square with nine arches, the symmetry of the composition, completed on the sides by two wider openings framed by pilasters - everything evokes the impression of balance, harmony and peace. However, having approached the classical concept, Brunelleschi embodied it in full-fledged forms of ancient architecture. The light proportions of the columns, the grace and subtlety of the profiling of the cornices reveal the kinship of Brunelleschi’s creation with the version of the classics that the architecture of the Tuscan Proto-Renaissance brought to the late Middle Ages.

One of Brunelleschi's main works is the Church of San Lorenzo in Florence, which he rebuilt. He started it by building a side

chapel, which later received the name of the old sacristy (1421-1428). In it he created a type of Renaissance centric structure, square in plan and covered with a dome resting on sails. The church building itself is a three-nave basilica.

The ideas for the domed structure, laid down in the old sacristy of San Lorenzo, were further developed in one of Brunelleschi's most famous and perfect creations - the Pazzi Chapel (1430-1443). It is distinguished by the clarity of spatial composition, purity of lines, elegance of proportions and decoration. The centric nature of the building, all volumes of which are grouped around the dome space, the simplicity and clarity of architectural forms, the harmonious balance of parts make the Pazzi Chapel a concentration of the new principles of Renaissance architecture.

Brunelleschi's last works - the oratorio of the church of Santa Maria degli Angeli, the church of San Spirito and some others - remained unfinished.

New trends in fine arts appeared first of all in sculpture. At the beginning of the 15th century, large orders for decorating the largest buildings of the city - the cathedral, the baptistery, the church of Or San Mekele - coming from the richest and most influential workshops and merchant guilds in the city, attracted many young artists, from among whom a number of outstanding masters soon emerged

First architectural projects: Orphanage and San Lorenzo

In 1419, the Arte della Seta guild commissioned Brunelleschi to build an Orphanage for infants left without parents.

The orphanage is organized simply: the arcades of its loggia are open towards Piazza Santissima Annunziata - the building is actually its openwork “wall”. All architectural elements are clearly legible, the scale of the building does not exceed human measure, but is consistent with it. An open staircase of 9 steps leads the entire width of the building to the lower floor, spread out in a gallery of 9 semicircular arches that rest on high columns of the composite order. From the capitals to the rear wall of the gallery there are supporting arches, which are supported by consoles decorated with capitals. At the corners, a row of columns has pilasters, above each of them rests an architrave, which stretches over all the arches. Between the arches and the architrave there are majolica medallions by Della Robbia depicting swaddled babies (with their simple colors - blue and white - they make the rhythm of the columns more measured and calm). The rectangular format of the windows, their frames and window pediments were copied by Brunelleschi from Roman examples, as were the columns, arch archivolts, pilasters and cornice profile. But the ancient forms are interpreted unusually freely, the entire composition is original and cannot at all be called a copy of ancient models. Thanks to some special sense of proportion, Brunelleschi, in the context of all Renaissance architecture, seems to be the most “Greek” and not a Roman master, despite the fact that he could not see a single Greek building.

Filippo Brunelleschi was born in 1377, in Florence, Italy, where his main surviving works are now kept. Scarce information about him early life represented only in the works of Antonio Manetti and Giorgio Vasari.

His father, Brunelleschi di Lippo, was a notary, and his mother's name was Giuliana Spini. Filippo was the middle of three children. He was taught literature and mathematics, preparing him to follow in his father’s footsteps - to become a cog in the state apparatus. However, the young man joined the Arte della Seta, the silk guild, and by 1389 he became a goldsmith.

In 1401, Brunelleschi participated in the Arte di Calimala competition to create new decorations for two bronze gates for the baptistery in Florence. Each of the seven contestants presented their bronze relief on the theme "The Sacrifice of Isaac." The winner was Lorenzo Ghiberti, whose work won in terms of technical skill. Ghiberti used one piece in his work, while Brunelleschi used several parts mounted on a plate, and the relief of the latter weighed 7 kg more.

Not much is known about how Brunelleschi switched from precious metals to architecture. Having experienced the bitterness of defeat at Arte di Calimala, Filippo arrived in Rome, where he probably scrupulously studied ancient sculpture. During this period, Donatello was next to him. Remaining in the Italian capital for several years, apparently in 1402-1404, both masters organized excavations of ancient ruins. The influence of ancient Roman authors can be seen in the works of both Filippo and Donatello.

According to biographers, Brunelleschi made a wooden "Crucifix" in the main Dominican church of Florence, Santa Maria Novella, as part of a friendly dispute with Donatello.

In 1419, Arte della Seta commissioned Brunelleschi to build the Ospedale degli Innocenti - an educational home for orphans. The architect abandoned marble and decorative inserts, but freely approached the interpretation of ancient forms. The arcades of the loggia of the house turned out to be open towards the Square of the Holy Annunciation. A row of columns in the corners received a pilaster with an epistelion stretching over all the arches. The rhythm of the columns was “calmed” by majolica medallions depicting swaddled babies.

Despite the fact that Brunelleschi copied a lot from Roman models, his works, from the point of view of all Renaissance architecture, are considered the most “Greek”. It is worth noting that he simply could not be familiar with the architecture of Greece (Greece).

After arriving in Florence, Filippo was given a difficult engineering task. He was required to build the dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore according to the design of Arnolfo di Cambio. The Gothic octagonal pointed vault itself was not easy, but additional difficulties were caused by the construction of special devices necessary for carrying out work at height.

A technical and mathematical genius, Brunelleschi told the council of Florence that he was ready to make a lightweight dome out of stone and brick. The design was prefabricated - it consisted of facets and shares; an architectural element in the form of a lantern was required to secure it on top. Brunelleschi also volunteered to make several unusual mechanisms for high-altitude work.

Towards the end of 1418, a team of four masons presented a model of the dome to demonstrate how the original would be built without solid formwork. The original octahedron, which defined the characteristic silhouette of Florence, turned out to be 42 m in diameter and consisted of two shells. The majestic pointed vault was consecrated by Pope Eugenius IV.

During major construction, Filippo made sure that workers did not leave their places during breaks. He personally delivered food and diluted wine to them at altitude. Thus, during that time period, it usually only applied to pregnant women. The architect believed that the descent and ascent of workers would exhaust them and reduce productivity.

Brunelleschi was one of the first to receive patents for inventions; in his case - to the ski lifts. He was also granted the first modern patent for a river transport vessel he invented. He excelled in mathematics, engineering and the study of ancient monuments. Brunelleschi invented hydraulic equipment and a complex clock mechanism, but none of this has survived to this day.

In 1427, Filippo built a huge ship, Il Badalone, to transport marble to Florence from Pisa up the Arno River. The ship sank on its first voyage, along with Brunelleschi's considerable fortune.

Brunelleschi is credited with the invention (or rediscovery) of direct perspective, which revolutionized painting and paved the way for naturalistic trends. Among other things, Filippo was involved in urban planning. He was responsible for the strategic location of several of his buildings - in relation to nearby squares and streets - and achieved "maximum visibility".

For example, in 1433 the demolition of buildings in front of San Lorenzo was authorized in order to create a market square overlooking this church on the vacant site. For the Church of Santo Spirito, Brunelleschi proposed placing the façade either towards the Arno River, to delight the eyes of travelers, or towards the north, to face a large piazza ready for construction.

A crater on Mercury is named after the architect.

Brunelleschi
nivel 2006-12-02 18:23:24

Quite an interesting article. Only in some publications did I find not Brunelleschi, but Brunelleschi.

Filippo Brunelleschi (Italian: Filippo Brunelleschi (Brunellesco)); 1377-1446) - great Italian architect and sculptor of the Renaissance.

The source of information is considered to be his “biography”, attributed, according to tradition, to Antonio Manetti, written more than 30 years after the death of the architect.

Filippo Brunelleschi was born in Florence in the family of the notary Brunelleschi di Lippo; Filippo's mother, Giuliana Spini, was related to the noble Spini and Aldobrandini families. As a child, Filippo, to whom his father's practice was to pass, received a humanitarian upbringing and the best education of that time: he studied Latin and studied ancient authors. Brought up by humanists, Brunelleschi adopted the ideals of this circle, longing for the times of “his ancestors” the Romans, and hatred of everything alien, of the barbarians who destroyed Roman culture, including “the monuments of these barbarians” (and among them - medieval buildings, cramped city streets), which seemed alien and inartistic to him in comparison with the ideas that humanists had about the greatness of Ancient Rome.

Having abandoned the career of a notary, Filippo was apprenticed from 1392, probably to a goldsmith, and then served as an apprentice to a goldsmith in Pistoia; He also studied drawing, modeling, engraving, sculpture and painting, in Florence he studied industrial and military machines, and acquired significant knowledge of mathematics for that time from the teaching of Paolo Toscanelli, who, according to Vasari, taught him mathematics. In 1398, Brunelleschi joined the Arte della Seta, which included goldsmiths. In Pistoia, the young Brunelleschi worked on the silver figures of the altar of St. James - his work was strongly influenced by the art of Giovanni Pisano. Donatello helped Brunelleschi work on the sculptures (he was 13 or 14 years old at the time) - from that time on, the masters became friends for life.

In 1401, Filippo Brunelleschi returned to Florence and took part in a competition announced by the Arte di Calimala (fabric merchants' workshop) to decorate two bronze gates of the Florence Baptistery with reliefs. Jacopo della Quercia, Lorenzo Ghiberti and a number of other masters took part in the competition with him. The competition, chaired by 34 judges, for which each artist had to submit a bronze relief of the “Sacrifice of Isaac” he had executed, lasted a year. The competition was lost to Brunelleschi - Ghiberti's relief was superior to it artistically and technically (it was cast from one piece and was 7 kg lighter than Brunelleschi's relief). However, despite the unanimity of the judges in choosing his relief as the winner, described by Ghiberti in his Memoirs, most likely, some intrigue surrounded the history of the competition (Manetti believes that Brunelleschi should have won). Despite this, Brunelleschi’s work was not destroyed along with the works of other participants, but was preserved (now in National Museum, Florence), apparently still noting it as unusually successful.

According to Manetti, Brunelleschi created several statues in wood and bronze. Among them is the statue of Mary Magdalene, which burned in Santo Spirito in a fire in 1471. Around 1409 (between the 1410s and 1430s), Brunelleschi created a wooden “Crucifix” in the church of Santa Maria Novella, according to testimony his biographers - having entered into a friendly dispute with Donatello.

Hurt by the fact that he lost the competition, Brunelleschi left Florence and went to Rome, where, perhaps, he decided to study ancient sculpture to perfection (some scientists push back the date of the trip, some even consider it a figment of the biographer’s imagination, some say that there were several such trips and they were short-lived). During Filippo's stay in Rome, Donatello was almost always with him. They lived in the Eternal City for several years, and since both were excellent goldsmiths, they made a living from this craft and spent all their earnings on organizing excavations of ancient ruins. In his free time, he devoted himself entirely to the study of Roman ruins, and the influence of Roman impressions can be noted in the work of both masters.

This is part of a Wikipedia article used under the CC-BY-SA license. Full text articles here →

Biography (based on materials from the book “100 Great Architects” by D. Samin, website www.brunelleschi.ru and www.peoples.ru)

       Filippo Brunelleschi was born in 1377 in Florence. Filippo was taught reading, writing and arithmetic, as well as some Latin, from an early age; His father was a notary and thought that his son would do the same. WITH early years the boy showed interest in drawing and painting and was very successful at it. When his father decided, according to custom, to teach him the craft, Brunelleschi chose jewelry, and his father, being a reasonable man, agreed with this. Thanks to his painting studies, Philippe soon became a professional in the jewelry craft.
       In 1398, Brunelleschi joined the Arte della Seta and became a goldsmith. However, joining the guild did not yet provide a certificate; he received it only six years later, in 1404. Prior to this, he interned in the workshop of the famous jeweler Linardo di Matteo Ducci in Pistoia. Filippo Brunelleschi remained in Pistoia until 1401. When a competition was announced for the second doors of the Florentine Baptistery, he apparently already lived in Florence, he was 24 years old.
       Filippo Brunelleschi had a large fortune, had a house in Florence and land holdings in its environs. He was constantly elected to government bodies of the Republic.
       All of Brunelleschi's construction activities, both in the city itself and outside it, took place on behalf of or with the approval of the Florentine Commune. According to Philippe's designs and under his leadership, a whole system of fortifications was erected in the cities conquered by the Republic, on the borders of the territories subordinate to it or controlled by it. Large fortification works were carried out in Pistoia, Lucca, Pisa, Livorno, Rimini, Siena and in the vicinity of these cities. In fact, Brunelleschi was the chief architect of Florence.
       The dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore is the earliest of Brunelleschi's major works in Florence.
       Before starting work, Brunelleschi drew a life-size plan of the dome. He used the Arno shallows near Florence for this purpose. The official start of construction work was marked on August 7, 1420 with a ceremonial breakfast.Since October, Filippo Brunelleschi began to receive a salary, albeit a very modest one, since it was believed that he carried out only general management.
       In 1429, representatives of the Florentine magistrate sent Brunelleschi to Lucca to supervise the work related to the siege of the city. After examining the area, Brunelleschi proposed a project. Brunelleschi's idea was to build a system of dams on the Serchio River and thus raise the water level, to open the floodgates at the right moment so that the water would flow through special channels and flood the entire area around the city walls, forcing Lucca to surrender. Brunelleschi's project was implemented, but was a fiasco; the water gushed out and flooded not the besieged city, but the besiegers' camp, which had to be hastily evacuated.
       Perhaps Brunelleschi was not to blame - the Council of Ten did not make any claims against him. However, the Florentines considered Philippe to be the culprit for the failure of the Lucca campaign; they did not allow him passage on the streets. Brunelleschi was in despair.
       In September 1431 he made a will, apparently fearing for his life. There is an assumption that at this time he left for Rome, fleeing shame and persecution.
       In 1434, Filippo Brunelleschi pointedly refused to pay a fee to the workshop of masons and woodworkers. It was a challenge posed by an artist who realized himself as independent creative personality, the workshop principle of labor organization. As a result of the conflict, Brunelleschi ended up in debtor's prison. The imprisonment did not force the architect to submit, and soon the workshop was forced to give in: Brunelleschi was released at the insistence of the Opera del Duomo, since construction work could not continue without him. This was a kind of revenge taken by Brunelleschi after the failure at the siege of Lucca.
       Filippo Brunelleschi believed that he was surrounded by enemies, envious people, traitors who were trying to get around him, deceive him, and rob him. It is difficult to say whether this was actually the case, but this is how Philippe perceived his position, this was his position in life.
       Brunelleschi's mood was undoubtedly influenced by the actions of his adopted son, Andrea Lazzaro Cavalcanti, nicknamed Bugiano. Philippe adopted him in 1417 as a five-year-old child and loved him as his own, raised him, made him his student and assistant. In 1434, Bugiano ran away from home, taking all the money and jewelry. From Florence he left for Naples. What happened is unknown, but Brunelleschi forced him to return, forgave him and made him his only heir.
      Back in 1430, Brunelleschi began construction of the Pazzi Chapel, where the architectural and constructive techniques of the sacristy of the Church of San Lorenzo were further improved and developed.
       In 1436, Brunelleschi began working on the design of the Basilica of San Spirito. Brunelleschi's last iconic building, in which there was a synthesis of all his innovative techniques, was the oratorio (chapel) Santa Maria degli Angeli in Florence (founded in 1434). This building was not finished.
       In Florence, a number of works have been preserved that reveal, if not Brunelleschi’s direct participation, then, in any case, his influence. These include Palazzo Pazzi, Palazzo Pitti and Badia (Abbey) in Fiesole.
       Not a single one of the large construction projects started by Filippo Brunelleschi was completed by him; he was busy with all of them, managing them all at the same time. And not only in Florence. At the same time, he built in Pisa, Pistoia, Prato - he traveled to these cities regularly, sometimes several times a year. In Siena, Lucca, Volterra, in Livorno and its environs, in San Giovanni Val d'Arno, he headed fortification work. Brunelleschi sat on various councils, commissions, gave advice on issues related to architecture, construction, engineering; he was invited to Milan in connection with the construction of the cathedral, they asked his advice regarding the strengthening of the Milan Castle. Brunelleschi traveled as a consultant to Ferrara, Rimini, Mantua, and carried out an examination of marble in Carrara.
       Filippo Brunelleschi died on April 16, 1449. He was buried in Santa Maria del Fiore.