What is Baroque in history definition. Baroque era. Brief description. Baroque in literature

Today let's look at the most interesting art style of Baroque. Its emergence was influenced by two important events of the Middle Ages. Firstly, this is a change in ideological ideas about the universe and man associated with the epoch-making scientific discoveries of that time. And secondly, with the need for those holding power to imitate their own greatness against the backdrop of material impoverishment. And the use of an artistic style that glorifies the power of the nobility and the church was just right. But against the backdrop of mercantile goals, the spirit of freedom, sensuality and self-awareness of man as a doer and creator broke through into the style itself.

- (Italian barocco - bizarre, strange, prone to excess; port. perola barroca - pearl with a vice) - a characteristic of European culture of the 17th-18th centuries, the center of which was Italy. The Baroque style appeared in the 16th-17th centuries in Italian cities: Rome, Mantua, Venice, Florence. The Baroque era is considered to be the beginning of the triumphant march of “Western civilization.” opposed classicism and rationalism.

In the 17th century, Italy lost its economic and political power. Foreigners - the Spaniards and the French - begin to rule its territory. But exhausted Italy has not lost the height of its position - it still remains the cultural center of Europe. The nobility and the church needed their power and wealth to be seen by everyone, but since there was no money for new buildings, they turned to art to create the illusion of power and wealth. This is how Baroque emerged in Italy.

Baroque is characterized by contrast, tension, dynamism of images, a desire for grandeur and splendor, for a combination of reality and illusion. During this period, thanks to the discoveries of Copernicus, the idea of ​​the world as a rational and constant unity, as well as of man as the most intelligent being, changed. As Pascal put it, man began to recognize himself as “something in between everything and nothing,” “one who captures only the appearance of phenomena, but is unable to understand either their beginning or their end.”

The Baroque style in painting is characterized by dynamism of compositions, “flatness” and splendor of forms, aristocracy and originality of subjects. The most characteristic features of Baroque are flashy floridity and dynamism. A striking example is creativity with its riots of feelings and naturalism in the depiction of people and events.

Caravaggio is considered the most significant master among Italian artists who created at the end of the 16th century. new style in painting. His paintings on religious subjects resemble realistic scenes of the author’s contemporary life, creating a contrast between late antiquity and modern times. The heroes are depicted in twilight, from which rays of light snatch out the expressive gestures of the characters, contrastingly highlighting their characteristics.

In Italian Baroque painting, different genres developed, but mainly they were allegories and the mythological genre. Pietro da Cortona, Andrea del Pozzo, and the Carracci brothers (Agostino and Lodovico) succeeded in this direction. The Venetian school became famous, where the genre of vedata, or city landscape, gained great popularity. The most famous author of such works is the artist.

Rubens combined in his paintings the natural and the supernatural, reality and fantasy, scholarship and spirituality. In addition to Rubens, another master of the Flemish Baroque achieved international recognition -. With the work of Rubens, a new style came to Holland, where it was picked up by. In Spain, Diego Velazquez worked in the manner of Caravaggio, and in France - Nicolas Poussin, in Russia - Ivan Nikitin and Alexey Antropov.

Baroque artists discovered new techniques for art in the spatial interpretation of form in its ever-changing life dynamics, and intensified their life position. The unity of life in the sensory-physical joy of being, in tragic conflicts forms the basis of beauty in Baroque art. Idealized images are combined with violent dynamics, reality with fantasy, and religious affectation with emphasized sensuality.

Closely associated with the monarchy, aristocracy and the church, Baroque art was intended to glorify and propagate their power. At the same time, it reflected new ideas about the unity, boundlessness and diversity of the world, about its dramatic complexity and eternal variability, interest in the environment, in the human environment, in the natural elements. Man no longer appears as the center of the Universe, but as a multifaceted personality, with a complex world of experiences, involved in the cycle and conflicts of the environment.

In Russia, the development of Baroque falls in the first half of the 18th century. Russian Baroque was free from the exaltation and mysticism characteristic of Catholic countries, and had a number of national characteristics, such as a sense of pride in the successes of the state and people. In Baroque architecture, it reached a majestic scale in the city and estate ensembles of St. Petersburg, Peterhof, and Tsarskoye Selo. In the fine arts, freed from medieval religious shackles, they turned to secular social themes, to the image of a human activist. Baroque everywhere evolves to the graceful lightness of the Rococo style, coexists and intertwines with it, and since the 1760s. replaced by classicism.

The emergence of the style is associated with Italy in the 16th century. During this crisis period, the country lost its economic and political significance, but remained the cultural center of Europe. The Church and the nobility, trying to demonstrate their power and wealth in tense financial conditions, turned to art. The desire for illusory luxury and wealth gave rise to the Baroque movement.

Baroque is radically opposed to rationalism and classicism. Characteristic features include:

• Dynamic images;
• Combination of real and illusory;
• Contrast;
• Affectation;
• Tension;
• Hyperbolized splendor and volume;
• Striving for greatness.

Baroque in painting

(Nicola Lancret "Dancing in the Pavilion")

Baroque painting was influenced by the popularity of the theatrical movement. Shakespeare's words: “All the world is a stage, and the people in it are actors” eloquently describe many famous works of that time. The clearest example is the paintings of P. P. Rubens “The Three Graces” and “Versavia”, in which realistic landscapes are complemented by velvet red curtains.

(Raphael "Portrait of Maddalena Doni")

Portrait becomes the predominant genre. All European monarchs are eager to immortalize their greatness on the canvases of famous masters. And every famous artist practices portrait painting, including Raphael, Holbein, Titian, Leonardo, Durer and others. The artist’s skill is judged by his portrait skills, and he is invited to serve as a portrait painter.

(Diego Velazquez "Las Meninas")

The work of Diego Velazquez occurred during the golden age of Spanish painting. While serving at the king's court, he painted a series of portraits of the royal family. Each new work is distinguished by the use of various techniques and technical complications. Velazquez's favorite part of the images is the mirror effect, which expands the boundaries of the canvas. It can be seen on the canvases “Las Meninas” and “Venus in front of the Mirror”.

The distinctive features of Spanish art in a general sense are the dualism of ascetic and physical, sublime and mundane, idealistic and real, as well as decorativeness, richness of color, and intricacy of forms.

Baroque in architecture

(Michelangelo Buonarroti - Cathedral of St. Petra in Rome)

The basis of the Baroque ideology was the confrontation between different faiths against the backdrop of the split of the church (into Catholics and Protestants), and the opposition of feudal tendencies to bourgeois ones. The spiritual power of religion is weakening, which leads to disagreements between secular and religious societies. In the current dramatic circumstances, a new view of architecture is being formed. The style, the beginning of which expressed a protest against the oppression of force, radically changed its motives over time. Rich customers appreciated the wide variety of plastic forms. As a result, ideological forms expressed only compositional techniques.

(Michelangelo Buonarroti - Palace of the Conservatives in Rome)

The origins of the style were the painter and architect Michelangelo Buonarotti. The greatest master of plastic art brought to life the design of the Medici Chapel, while simultaneously working on the vestibule of the Laurentian Library (1520-1534). These works are recognized as the first works of Baroque architecture.

The most famous baroque masters of the 17th century are L. Bernini and F. Borromini. Their creative views differed. Borromini inherited the architectural spirit of Michelangelo with its dynamic tension, massiveness of space, expression, and emphasized contrasts. The main direction of Bernini's work is a frank expression of majesty and undisguised luxury.

In addition to the differences, the works of these masters show similar features inherent in most representatives of the style:

• Effectiveness achieved by fullness of space;
• Splendor of forms;
• Exaggerated pathos;
• Plastic fractures, deflections;
• Complexity, not always fully justified.

Baroque spaces have complex structures. Unlike the Renaissance, where preference is given to regular geometric shapes (square, circle), in Baroque the favorite figure is an oval, giving uncertainty and fantasy to the overall volume. But this form is often complemented by characteristic curves of lines; the walls have convex and concave sections. The configuration of the plan is complicated by adjacent volumes, the boundaries between which are barely perceptible; adjacent elements are perceived as one whole. The dynamics of space are emphasized by the distribution of light and shade. Dark areas contrast with brightly lit accents. One of the most frequently used techniques is a sheaf of light from half-opened openings, which precisely cuts the air environment.

(Zwinger, Dresden 1719)

Religious construction found a second wind during the Baroque period. The end of the protracted construction of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome had a huge impact on the religious world. The main Catholic church was a centric volume with a grandiose dome at its head. Michelangelo carried out most of the work on the building, and after revising the layout, Bernini completed the work. He framed the cathedral square with a group of majestic columns.

(Great Catherine Palace in Russia in Baroque style)

Baroque architecture, so popular in Italy, was not to the taste of countries with Protestant views, such as Scotland, England, northern Germany, and Scandinavia. But in the 17th century, the Austrians, after consolidating imperial power, often invited Italian craftsmen to work on palaces.

(The Winter Palace was also built in the Baroque style)

By the beginning of the 18th century, Baroque architecture had undergone some changes. Straight lines were replaced by broken and winding ones. Stucco molding, sculpture, large mirrors, and flowerpots were widely used. At this time, large-scale projects were developed and implemented, and ensemble construction techniques were used for the first time.

Conclusion

Baroque as a style direction began to develop at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries. - XVIII century The historical course of that time suggested the emergence of a culture of contradiction between the church and the secular. At the intersection of the tastes of two significant components of society, the deliberate luxury and richness of the Baroque arose. The limitless flow of imagination of the masters imbued this style with solemnity, magnificent forms, impulsiveness, variety and excess of decorative elements. The art of this style, despite obvious signs, is developing and becoming saturated with new techniques to this day.

Italian - whimsical) - a direction in art of the late XVI - mid. XVIII centuries, associated with the noble-church culture of the period of absolutism, striving to reflect grandeur, pomp, and pomp.

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BAROQUE

from Italian barocco - bizarre, strange), an artistic style that has occupied a leading position in European art since the end. 16 to midday 18th century Originated in Italy. The term was introduced into law. 19th century Swiss art historians J. Burckhardt and G. Wölfflin. The style covered all types of creativity: literature, music, theater, but was especially pronounced in architecture, fine and decorative arts. The Renaissance feeling of the clear harmony of the universe was replaced by a dramatic understanding of the conflict of existence, the endless diversity, vastness and constant variability of the surrounding world, and the power of powerful natural elements over man. The expressiveness of Baroque works is often built on contrasts, dramatic collisions of the sublime and the base, the majestic and the insignificant, the beautiful and the ugly, the illusory and the real, light and darkness. A penchant for composing complex and verbose allegories went hand in hand with extreme naturalism. Baroque works of art were distinguished by their redundancy of forms, passion and intensity of images. As never before, there was a strong feeling of the “theater of life”: fireworks, masquerades, a passion for dressing up, impersonation, all kinds of “deceptions” brought a playful element into a person’s life, unprecedented entertainment and bright festivity.

The masters of the Baroque era sought to synthesize various types of arts (architecture, sculpture, painting), to create an ensemble, which often included elements of living nature, transformed by the artist’s imagination: water, vegetation, wild stones, thoughtful effects of natural and artificial lighting, which caused a flourishing garden and park architecture. In Baroque buildings, the structure of the architectural order was preserved, but instead of the clear orderliness, calm and measuredness characteristic of the classics, the forms became fluid, mobile, and acquired complex, curvilinear outlines. The straight lines of the cornices were “broken”; the walls were split into clusters of columns and abundant sculptural decorations. Buildings and squares actively interacted with the surrounding space (D. L. Bernini. Ensemble of the square of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, 1657–63; Church of Sant'Andrea al Quirinale in Rome, 1653–58; F. Borromini. Church of San Carlo alle Cuatro Fontane in Rome, 1634–67; G. Guarino. Church of San Lorenzo in Turin, 1668–87).

Baroque sculpture is characterized by a special tactility, materiality in the interpretation of forms, virtuosic, almost illusory, demonstration of the texture of depicted objects, the use of various materials (bronze, gilding, multi-colored marbles), contrasts of light and shadow, violent emotions and movements, pathetic gestures and facial expressions ( D. L. Bernini, brothers K. D. and E. K. Azam).

Baroque painting is characterized by monumentality and spectacular decorativeness, a juxtaposition of the ideally sublime (Carraci brothers, G. Reni, Guercino) and the mundanely ordinary (Caravaggio). Baroque principles were most fully manifested in magnificent ceremonial portraits (A. Van Dyck, G. Rigaud); in luxurious still lifes that showed the abundant gifts of nature (F. Snyders); in allegorical compositions, where the figures of rulers and nobles were adjacent to images of ancient gods who personified the virtues of those portrayed (P. P. Rubens). Plafond (ceiling) painting experienced a bright flourishing (frescoes of the Church of Sant'Ignazio in Rome by A. del Pozzo, 1685–99; plafond of the Palazzo Barberini in Rome by P. da Cortona, 1633–39; paintings of the Palazzo Labia in Venice by G. B. Tiepolo, ca. 1750). Baroque lampshades created the illusion of the roof disappearing, a “breakthrough” into the heavens with swirling clouds, where crowds of mythological and biblical characters were carried away in a swift colorful whirlpool. The work of the greatest masters of the 17th century shows contacts with Baroque style: D. Velazquez, Rembrandt, F. Hals and others.

In Russia, Baroque elements appeared later than in Europe - in the second half. 17th century - in the paintings of Yaroslavl churches, in decorative and applied arts, in the buildings of the so-called. Naryshkin Baroque, the traditions of which were developed in his work by I. P. Zarudny (“Menshikov Tower” in Moscow, 1704–07). The active penetration of style into Russian culture occurs with the beginning of Peter's reforms in the first decades of the 18th century; in the 1760s Baroque gives way to classicism. At the invitation of Peter I, many foreign masters come to Russia: architects D. Trezzini, A. Schlüter, G. I. Mattarnovi, N. Michetti, sculptors N. Pino, B. K. Rastrelli, painters I. G. Tannauer, L. Caravaque, engravers A. Schonebeck, P. Picard and others.

In accordance with Peter’s personal tastes, visiting and domestic artists were guided mainly by a more restrained version of the Baroque that developed in Holland; The mystical exaltation of the works of Italian masters remained alien to Russian art. In Russia, Baroque coexisted (and often intertwined) not with classicism, as was the case in Europe, but with the emerging Rococo. Portrait became the leading genre of painting. Baroque style permeated the entire system of decorating holidays and celebrations of the early 18th century, which developed during the reign of Peter I (illuminations, fireworks, triumphal arches erected from temporary materials, lavishly decorated with decorative painting and sculpture). The leading Baroque sculpture in Russia was the Italian B. K. Rastrelli. In his portraits and monuments, the solemn elegance of the image and the complexity of the spatial composition are combined with jewelry finesse in the execution of details (“Empress Anna Ioannovna with a Little Little Arab,” 1741). A striking example of Baroque naturalism is Rastrelli’s “Wax Person” of Peter I (1725).

In Russian painting of the Peter the Great era (I.N. Nikitin, A.M. Matveev), the influence of the Baroque is felt in a special elation, increased internal energy of portrait images.

The heyday of the Baroque in Russia occurred during the reign of Elizaveta Petrovna (1741–61). The most striking embodiment of the style in architecture were the solemn buildings, full of life-affirming pathos, created by B. F. Rastrelli (Winter Palace, 1732–33; palaces of M. I. Vorontsov, 1749–57, and S. G. Stroganov, 1752–54, in St. Petersburg). The grandiose garden and park ensembles in Peterhof (1747–52) and Tsarskoe Selo (1752–57) fully embodied the synthesis of architecture, sculpture, painting, decorative and applied and landscape art. Bright – blue, white, gold – are the colors of the palace facades; water cascades and fountains in the parks with their incessant noise and incessant movement of falling water, reflecting the glare of the sun during the day and the ghostly lights of fireworks at night - all created a festive spectacle. Rastrelli's church architecture combined the traditions of European Baroque and Old Russian architecture (Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg, 1748–54). Leading Baroque architects of the mid-18th century. there were also S. I. Chevakinsky, who worked in St. Petersburg (St. Nicholas Naval Cathedral, 1753–62), and D. V. Ukhtomsky, who built in Moscow (Red Gate, 1753–57).

In ceiling painting, the most recognized masters were the Italians D. Valeriani and A. Perezinotti, who also successfully worked in the genre of theatrical and decorative art. Portrait remained the leading genre in the work of Russian masters. In the works of A.P. Antropov, baroque was embodied in the images portrayed, saturated with power and strength, in the contrast of internal energy and external immobility, rigidity, in the natural authenticity of individual, carefully drawn details, in bright, decorative colors.

Russian engraving of the Baroque era (A.F. Zubov) combined rationalism, efficiency with showiness in depicting naval battles, ceremonial processions, and ceremonial views of the new capital of Russia. Engravers ser. 18th century often turned to the city landscape (ceremonial views of St. Petersburg, made according to the originals of M. I. Makhaev), as well as to scientific, educational topics (artistic execution of architectural plans, geographical maps, decorative projects for triumphal gates, fireworks and illuminations, teaching aids , atlases and book illustrations). These graphic works combined documentary care in depicting the smallest details and an abundance of decorative elements - cartouches with inscriptions, vignettes, rich and abundant ornamentation.

Baroque style with its dynamic forms, contrasts and restless play of chiaroscuro revives again in the era of romanticism.

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Details Category: Variety of styles and movements in art and their features Published 07/24/2014 18:16 Views: 6591

No matter how they called this style! – Strange, prone to excess, ridiculous, pretentious, unnatural...

At first, these characteristics sounded like a joke. And all only because the new style did not correspond to the canons of ancient art, on the basis of which a work of art should be built and which later used classicism and rationalism. That is, only this way and not otherwise.

But, as you know, there is nothing permanent in the world: everything flows, changes and acquires new qualities and priorities. And now the new 17th century was marked by a new style. This style has subjugated all types of art: from interiors and clothing to music. But the time will come - and another style will supplant it...
In which country could Baroque originate? Of course, in Italy. It was Italy that was the center of European culture in the 17th-18th centuries, and from here the triumphant march of the Baroque across Europe began. In each country, Baroque had its own special national features.

Features of the Baroque style

The most important features of Baroque are its desire for pomp and grandeur. Baroque was also characterized by dynamism and contrast, which greatly distinguished it from Renaissance harmony.
If we talk about the era and the people who lived at this time, you can see a special passion for entertainment, card games, it was at this time that masquerades, fireworks, elaborate women's hairstyles, corsets, unnaturally widened skirts on frames, and powdered wigs for men became popular , shaved face, etc. As we see, there is a strong departure from natural life, which was rejected as savagery and unceremoniousness. One has only to remember how much effort Peter I made to “ennoble” Russian society of that time. In the collection “An Honest Mirror of Youth”, prepared on his instructions, its second part is entirely devoted to the rules of behavior for “young youths” and girls of the noble class. In fact, this is the first etiquette textbook in Russia. The young nobleman was recommended to study, first of all, foreign languages, horse riding, dancing and fencing. The girl's virtues were recognized as humility, respect for parents, hard work and silence, and chastity. The essay regulated almost all aspects of public life: from table manners to public service. The book formed a new stereotype of the behavior of a socialite, avoiding bad company, extravagance, drunkenness, rudeness and adhering to European social manners.

Baroque in painting

The same features of the Baroque are also in painting: splendor of forms, catchy dynamism and brightness, originality of subjects. The most famous representatives of this style in painting were Rubens and Caravaggio.

Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640)

South Dutch (Flemish) painter who embodied the mobility, unbridled vitality and sensuality of European painting of the Baroque era.

P.P. Rubens "Self-Portrait" (1623)
His paintings are distinguished by their exceptional diversity, especially regarding composition: he uses diagonal, ellipse, and spiral. His palette is also varied; the richness of colors is a distinctive feature of his paintings. “Rubensian” women are usually somewhat heavy, but attract attention with their heavy female form.

P.P. Rubens "The Rape of the Daughters of Leucippus" (1618)
The plot of this painting by Rubens is the myth of the brothers Castor and Pollux (sons of Zeus and Leda), who kidnapped the daughters of King Leucippus - Gilaira and Phoebe. In this plot, Rubens was captivated by the dramatic moment of the abduction itself, which provides rich opportunities for plastic solutions. The picture amazingly conveys the dynamics of movement. Movement, as understood by Rubens, carries both an emotional impulse and a plot meaning.
Rubens is considered an innovator in depicting hunting scenes, which are also distinguished by their dynamics, unexpected composition and rich colors.

P.P. Rubens "The Hunt for the Hippopotamus" (1618)

Baroque architecture

Baroque architecture is striking primarily in its complexity and scope. An abundance of complex, usually curvilinear forms, large-scale colonnades. There is an abundance of sculpture on the facades of buildings and in the interiors. Often multi-tiered domes of complex shapes. Endless repetition, duplication of the same techniques.

Cathedral of St. Petra (Vatican)
I. Grabar writes about Roman architecture of the Baroque era: “Neurasthenic enthusiasm doubles and triples all means of expression: there are no longer enough individual columns, and where possible they are replaced by paired ones; One pediment seems insufficiently expressive, and they do not hesitate to tear it apart in order to repeat another, smaller scale. In pursuit of a picturesque play of light, the architect does not reveal all forms to the viewer at once, but presents them gradually, repeating them two, three and five times. The eye gets confused and lost in these intoxicating waves of forms and perceives such a complex system of rising, falling, receding and approaching, now emphasized, now lost lines, that you don’t know which of them is correct? Hence the impression of some kind of movement, continuous running of lines and flow of forms. This principle reaches its highest expression in the technique of “bracing”, in that repeated fragmentation of the entablature, which causes a whimsically curving line of the cornice at the top of the building. This technique was elevated by the Baroque masters into a whole system, unusually complex and complete. This also includes the use of group pilasters, when the pilasters receive additional half-pilasters on the sides, as well as the use of flat frames framing the intervals between the pilasters.” By such means in architecture, instead of the Renaissance ideal of clear, stable and complete harmony, a “ghostly sensation” was created.

Distinctive Baroque details -Atlanta(telamones), caryatids– to support vaults, playing the role of columns;mascarons(a type of sculptural decoration of a building in the shape of a human or animal head from the front).

Perhaps it is in architecture that the Baroque is presented in all its fullness and diversity. It’s difficult to even list all the architects of this style; let’s name just a few names: L. Bernini, F. Borromini in Italy, B. F. Rastrelli in Russia, Jan Christoph Glaubitz in Poland.
In Italian architecture, the most famous representative of the Baroque was Carlo Maderna (1556-1629). His main creation is the facade of the Roman church of Santa Susanna (1603).

Santa Susanna (Rome)
The sculptor Lorenzo Bernini was also an architect. He is responsible for the design of the square of the Cathedral of St. Peter's in Rome and interiors, as well as other buildings.

Square of the Cathedral of St. Petra in Rome
The Baroque style is becoming widespread in Spain, Germany, Belgium (Flanders), the Netherlands, Russia, France, and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Poland). At the beginning of the 18th century. France had its own style, a variety of Baroque - Rococo. It predominated not in the external design of buildings, but only in the interiors, as well as in the design of books, clothing, furniture, and paintings. The style was widespread throughout Europe and Russia. But we'll talk about it later. Now let's focus on Russian Baroque.

Baroque in Russia

Baroque appeared in Russia at the end of the 17th century. (it was called “Naryshkin baroque”, “Golitsyn baroque”). During the reign of Peter I, the so-called “Petrine baroque” (more restrained) began to develop in St. Petersburg and its suburbs in the works of D. Trezzini; it reached its peak during the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna in the works of S. I. Chevakinsky and B. Rastrelli.

Peter's Baroque

This term is used by art historians to describe the artistic style approved by Peter I and widely used to design buildings in the new Russian capital of St. Petersburg.
It was an architectural style based on examples of Swedish, German and Dutch civil architecture. Although it is possible to reduce the entire variety of architectural solutions of Peter the Great’s architects to Baroque only with a certain degree of convention, because There are features of classicism and gothic here.
The architecture of Peter the Great's time is characterized by simplicity of volumetric constructions, clarity of divisions and restraint of decoration, and a planar interpretation of facades. Unlike the Naryshkin Baroque, popular at the time in Moscow, Peter the Great's Baroque represented a decisive break with the Byzantine traditions that had dominated Russian architecture for almost 700 years. Golitsyn Baroque was similar to Italian and Austrian examples.
Among the first builders of St. Petersburg are Jean-Baptiste Leblon, Domenico Trezzini, Andreas Schlüter, J. M. Fontana, Nicolo Michetti and G. Mattarnovi. All of them arrived in Russia at the invitation of Peter I. Each of these architects introduced the traditions of their country and the architectural school that they represented into the appearance of the buildings they constructed. While supervising the implementation of their projects, Russian architects, such as Mikhail Zemtsov, also adopted the traditions of European Baroque.

Peter's assemblies

They were the prototype of a noble ball. Peter I introduced assemblies into the cultural life of Russian society in December 1718.
The idea was borrowed by Peter from the forms of leisure that he saw in Europe. They were held at all times of the year, in the summer – outdoors. The assemblies included food, drinks, dancing, games and conversation. According to the decree, attendance at the assemblies was mandatory not only for nobles, but also for their wives, which was closely monitored by the “king of balls” Yaguzhinsky. Yesterday's boyars tried in every possible way to avoid participating in assemblies, not wanting to dress in the new fashion and considering such a pastime indecent. The participation of women in entertainment also caused dissatisfaction. To prevent “absenteeism,” Yaguzhinsky looked through the lists of those invited to the assemblies and identified “netchikov.” This is how hard it was for European fashion (in this case, the Baroque style) to take root in Russia.

Domenico Trezzini (1670-1734)

Italian, born in Switzerland. From 1703 he worked in Russia, becoming the first architect of St. Petersburg. Trezzini laid the foundations of the European school in Russian architecture.

Peter and Paul Cathedral is one of the most famous works of Domenico Trezzini
His other works:
Project of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra complex (1715)
Anichkov Bridge (1721). Rebuilt to increase the crossing capacity. The new project is an 18-span wooden bridge with a drawbridge in the middle. The construction was carried out by the Dutch master H. van Bolos.

Anichkov Bridge (modern view)
Peter and Paul Cathedral (1712-1733) Erected on the site of a wooden church of the same name. The bell tower spire with the figure of a flying angel was erected by the Dutch master H. van Bolos.
House of Trezzini (1721-1726). The design was carried out by Trezzini himself, the construction was carried out by M. Zemtsov.
Expansion of the Winter Palace of Peter I for Catherine I (1726-1727)

Bartolomeo Francesco Rastrelli (1700-1771)

OK. Pfandzelt "Portrait of Rastrelli"
Russian architect of Italian origin, academician of architecture at the Imperial Academy of Arts. The most prominent representative of the so-called Elizabethan Baroque.
His works:

Rundāle Palace (Latvia). Built in the Baroque style according to the design of F. B. Rastrelli for E. I. Biron in 1736-1740).
Mitava Palace (Latvia). Built in the 18th century. designed by Bartolomeo Rastrelli as the ceremonial city residence of the Dukes of Courland and Semigallia in their capital Mitava (now Jelgava).
Grand Palace (Peterhof). Located on the southern shore of the Gulf of Finland.

St. Andrew's Church (Kyiv). Orthodox church in honor of the Apostle Andrew the First-Called; built in the Baroque style according to the design of Bartolomeo Rastrelli in 1754.
Smolny Cathedral (1748-1764), Vorontsov Palace (1749-1757), Great Catherine Palace (1752-1756) - all in St. Petersburg; "Grotto" pavilion in Tsarskoe Selo (1753-1757), "Hermitage" pavilion in Tsarskoe Selo (1744-1754), Tsar's Palace in Kyiv (1752-1770), Stroganov Palace and Winter Palace in St. Petersburg (1753-1762) .

Winter Palace (Hermitage)
Only the surviving buildings of this architect are listed. Unfortunately, not everything created by Rastrelli has survived to this day.

Baroque in sculpture

The greatest sculptor and recognized architect of the 17th century. was the Italian Lorenzo Bernini.

Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680)

D.L. Bernini "Self-Portrait"
His most famous sculptures are the mythological scenes of the abduction of Proserpina by the god of the underworld Pluto and the miraculous transformation of the nymph Daphne into a tree, pursued by the god of light Apollo, as well as the altar group “The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa” in one of the Roman churches. This sculpture, with clouds carved from marble and the characters' clothes fluttering in the wind, with theatrically exaggerated feelings, very accurately expresses the position of the sculptors of this era.

D.L. Bernini "The Rape of Proserpina" (1621-1622). Borghese Gallery

D.L. Bernini "Ecstasy of Saint Teresa"

Baroque literature

In Baroque literature, writers and poets developed a tendency to perceive the real world as an illusion or a dream. Allegorical images, symbols, metaphors, theatrical techniques, antitheses, and rhetorical figures were often used. There is a noticeable desire for the symbolism of the night, the theme of frailty and impermanence, life as a dream. One of P. Calderon’s plays is called: “Life is a Dream.” The action of the novels is often transferred to the fictional world of antiquity, to Greece, court gentlemen and ladies are depicted as shepherdesses and shepherdesses, which is called pastorals. In poetry there is pretentiousness, the use of complex metaphors. The sonnet, rondo, concetti (a short poem expressing some witty thought), and madrigals (a love-lyrical musical and poetic work) are common.
In Russia, Baroque literature includes S. Polotsky and F. Prokopovich.

Simeon of Polotsk (in the world Samuil Gavrilovich Petrovsky-Sitnyanovich, 1629-1680)

Worker of East Slavic culture, spiritual writer, theologian, poet, playwright, translator, Basilian monk, court astrologer. He was a mentor to the children of the Russian Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich: Alexei, Sophia and Fedor.
He was also one of the first Russian poets, the author of syllabic verses in Church Slavonic and Polish. In addition to the poetic transcription of the Psalter called “The Rhyming Psalter,” Polotsky wrote many poems that made up the collection “Rhythmologion,” in which he sang various events from the life of the royal family and courtiers, as well as many moral and didactic poems included in “Vertograd the Multicolored.” This collection is the pinnacle of the work of Simeon of Polotsk, as well as one of the most striking manifestations of Russian literary baroque.
S. Polotsky also wrote two comedies (school dramas) for the nascent theater; “The Comedy of the Parable of the Prodigal Son” enjoyed particular success.

Baroque music

Baroque music appeared at the end of the Renaissance and preceded the music of classicism. Pretentious forms, complexity, pomp and dynamics were also characteristic of music. But many works of the Baroque period have become classics and are still performed today: fugues by Johann Sebastian Bach, works by George Frideric Handel, “The Seasons” by Antonio Vivaldi, “Vespers” by Claudio Monteverdi.

E.G. Haussmann (Hausmann) “Portrait of J. S. Bach”
Baroque music is characterized by musical ornamentation, which in the heyday of the style became very sophisticated, and methods of playing instruments developed. The scope of genres has expanded, and the complexity of performing musical works has increased. Appeared in the Baroque era opera. Many Baroque musical terms are still used today.

F.M. de La Cava "Portrait of A. Vivaldi"

Baroque fashion

The fashion of the Baroque era corresponds in France to the period of the reign of Louis XIV, the second half of the 17th century. It was a time of absolutism. Strict etiquette and complex ceremonies reigned at court. The costume was subject to etiquette. It was France that was the trendsetter in Europe, so other countries quickly adopted French fashion: a general fashion was established in Europe, and national characteristics were preserved only in folk peasant costume. Before Peter I, European costumes were almost never worn in Russia.
The costume was distinguished by its primness, pomp, and abundance of decorations. The ideal man was Louis XIV, the “Sun King,” a skilled horseman, dancer, and marksman. He was short, so he wore high heels.

N. de Largilliere “Portrait of Louis XIV with his family”
Since Louis was crowned at the age of 5, short jackets (brassieres), decorated with lace, and pants (rengraves), similar to a skirt, also richly decorated with lace, came into fashion. Justocor is a type of caftan, knee-length, worn buttoned, with a belt over it. A sleeveless camisole was worn under the caftan. The caftan and camisole will turn into a jacket and vest in 200 years. The collar of the justocor was at first turned-down, with semicircular ends extended downward, and later it was replaced by a frill. In addition to lace, there were many bows on the clothes. Before Louis XIII, boots (over the knee boots) were popular. They even wore boots at balls. They continued to be worn under Louis XIV, but only on military campaigns. In a civilian setting, shoes came first. Until 1670 they were decorated with buckles and then with bows. Elaborately decorated buckles were called agraf.
Men wore fluffy wigs that stuck high and flowed over their shoulders. Wigs came into use under Louis XIII, who was bald. Later they became much more magnificent. Hats in the 1660s were wide-brimmed with a high crown. At the end of the century they were replaced by a cocked hat, which remained popular in the 18th century.

Baroque in clothes
The woman's dress was lined with whalebone. It gradually expanded towards the bottom, and a train was worn at the back. A full women's costume consisted of two skirts: the lower (fripon, light) and the upper (modest, darker). The underskirt was visible, the upper skirt diverged to the sides from the bottom of the bodice. The sides of the skirt were decorated with draperies. There were also drapes along the edge of the neckline. The waist was narrow; a corset was worn under the dress.
In the 1660s, Mancini and Sevigne hairstyles were fashionable, and later the Fontange hairstyle came into fashion. This is a high hairstyle with many curls.

Umbrellas came into fashion, and for women, muffs and fans. Cosmetics were used without measure: all kinds of spots were sculpted on the face (the black spot created a contrast with the powdered faces and wigs). Men and women carried canes.
Popular materials of that time were wool, velvet, satin, brocade, taffeta, moiré, camelot, and cotton.

Baroque in the interior

It is characterized by ostentatious luxury. Wall painting has become widespread, although it was popular earlier.

Baroque interior
The interiors used a lot of color and large, richly decorated details: frescoed ceilings, marble walls, gilding. Color contrasts were typical, for example, a marble floor decorated with tiles in a checkerboard pattern. Extensive gilded decorations are also a characteristic feature of the Baroque.
Furniture was a piece of art and was intended to decorate the interior. Chairs, sofas and armchairs were upholstered in expensive fabric. Huge beds with canopies and flowing bedspreads and giant wardrobes were widespread.

The mirrors were decorated with sculptures and stucco with floral patterns. Southern walnut and Ceylon ebony were often used as furniture materials.
The Baroque style is only suitable for large rooms, since massive furniture and decorations take up a large amount of space. By the way, there is already a tendency towards its return - some are furnishing their apartments in this style.

The Baroque style in architecture has found its place in all European countries, but two came to the fore. Originating in Italy, it reaches its apogee in France, smoothly flowing into Rococo. The article traces the development of several Italian Baroque themes, culminating in the Vatican. Then looks at French trends culminating in Louis XIV's ambitious palace at Versailles.

What are the features of Baroque

Italian word barocco means “bizarre”, “strange”, “prone to excess”. The main characteristic of this direction is dynamism (sense of movement). Flowing wavy lines, rich decoration and complexity are all typical features of Baroque art. Finally, for the first time since antiquity, architects began to resort to optical illusion in construction. They realized that by deceiving the eye, they could make a large building even more grandiose, adding power and wealth to the owner. This technique goes back to how great temples were made to look simply stunning.

The full Baroque aesthetic arose during

1. early baroque (around 1600-25),
2. and ended during the High Baroque (circa 1625-75); both periods were led by Italy.

The restrained Baroque aesthetic of Northern Europe culminated during the Late Baroque (c. 1675-1725). The era was completed by the French Rococo style (circa 1725-1800), in which the omnipotence and drama of the style were calmed by gentle playfulness. The late Baroque and Rococo periods were led by France.

England should also be noted in the discussion of Baroque architecture for two reasons.

1. Firstly, this period featured Christopher Wren, who is considered the greatest of them all. Wren designed many buildings in London after the Great Fire, including the masterpiece St Paul's Cathedral.
2. Secondly, the Baroque era saw the rise in popularity of Palladian style architecture in England during the subsequent neoclassical period.

How to distinguish Baroque from Renaissance

Baroque architecture is characterized primarily by rich sculptural surfaces. While Renaissance architects favored planar classicism (flat surfaces decorated with classical elements), Baroque architects freely shaped surfaces, achieving three-dimensional sculptural classicism.

An example of high baroque architecture. Church in Rome San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane or San Carlino. Arch. Francesco Borromini

While the surface of a Renaissance building is usually neatly divided into sections (according to classical clarity and order), the Baroque surface is treated as one continuous whole.

A Renaissance facade often consists of many similar parts, so that the eye does not stop at any particular part of the building. A Baroque façade often includes a rich, spectacular concentration of elements around a central entrance. For example, curved walls, columns, blind arches, statues, relief sculpture.

Baroque style in architecture: examples of Italian architects

Early Baroque (ca. 1600-1625)

The most magnificent examples of Baroque architecture are the churches in Italy. The pioneer of the trend was Carlo Maderno, the author of the facade of St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican. Constructed by various architects throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the building generally is a mixture of Renaissance and Baroque components.

Before him, various architects (especially Michelangelo) worked on the basilica. Maderno moved the main entrance forward and adjusted the proportions of the dome, stretching it upward. The facade of the Basilica itself, designed by him, is its own small miracle.

St. Peter's Basilica (lat. Basilica Sancti Petri, Italian. Basilica di San Pietro) - Catholic cathedral, the central and largest building of the Vatican

It contains a number of typical Baroque elements. Among them

• different styles of columns: double (closely standing in pairs), multi-level (from larger columns smaller columns stand out), huge, on several floors;
• broken pediments that have a gap at the bottom and/or top, often with ornamentation or other decoration.

All these elements came from the late Renaissance and Mannerism. Maderno breaks up the colonnade and horizon of the facade into intervals with statues and other decorations and moves on. Mixes styles, alternates square columns with round ones. Likewise, the gables above the windows and doors also alternate between rounded and triangular designs. All doors and windows are different.

However, all this lush variety is regulated and controlled to create symmetry. The overall effect is picturesque and exciting.

High Baroque (ca. 1625-75)

The two main names in High Baroque architecture are: Bernini and Borromini. Both worked mainly in Rome.

There are two masterpieces in St. Peter's Basilica Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini. One of them is a four-story canopy (covered dome) that stands above the high altar in the center of the basilica. The other is a square framed by a colonnade in the form of symmetrical semicircles. Creating a panoramic effect, it draws the eye to the basilica in the center. On top of the colonnade, 162 statues of Catholic saints provide variety.

Bernini's Baroque Colonnade in front of St. Peter's Basilica

This Bernini project has no analogues: all rows of columns are combined and strictly one row is visible if you stand at a certain point on the square. This place is marked with white marble. Attempts to repeat the effect were unsuccessful.

P staircase of the Vatican Palace, he designed it in such a way that it appears longer and taller than it actually is. He created an optical illusion, deceived the eye, in order to correct the construction mistake of his predecessors.

Baroque in architecture. Canopy and main staircase (Scala Regina) of St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican. Arch. Bernini

Bernini's most famous building is the small church of Sant'Andrea al Quirinale ("St. Andrew on the Quirinal Hill"). This hill is one of the seven hills of Rome.

Francesco Borromini was a master of curved wall architecture. Although he designed many large buildings, his most famous and influential work is the small church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane ("St. Carlo with Four Fountains"). This building is also located on the Quirinal hill (first photo of the article). Here we see his Baroque architectural innovations - the use of curved surfaces. Straight lines were replaced by smooth, sinuous ones, giving the building its characteristic baroque feel. The eye enjoys the view of the rounded windows and the graceful curve of the facade

Italy laid the foundation for Baroque themes that were repeated again and again in the Baroque architecture of other countries:

• use of curves,
• introduction of irregular decorations and designs,
• subjugation of irregularity to symmetry and
• incorporating optical illusion into architectural design.

Baroque of northern Europe: examples

Late Baroque (ca. 1675-1725)

The late Baroque marks the rise of France as a center of Western culture. Baroque art in France (and in Northern Europe in general) is restrained, so that it can be described as a compromise between classical and baroque. A distinctive element of French Baroque architecture is the double-leaf mansard roof (a typical French invention).

The most famous baroque structures in France are the magnificent castles. There is probably no larger residence on Earth than Versailles. It was built mainly during the time of Louis XIV, whose patronage of the arts brought France on the crest of a wave of Western culture.

An example of late baroque. Facade of the Palace of Versailles

The façade of the palace perfectly illustrates the Northern European classical baroque compromise. The walls of the palace are made in a combination of glider classicism with such Baroque elements as sculpted busts, various pilasters and other decorations. In addition, the mansard roof has richly decorated windows. Versailles became the European model of palace architecture, inspiring the creation of similar ensembles throughout the continent, right up to St. Petersburg.

The most famous room in Versailles is the Hall of Mirrors. The mirrors are the same dimensions as the windows opposite.

Rococo (ca. 1725-1800)

Continuing the traditions of the Baroque, the Rococo style in architecture loses its scale, grandeur and drama. Lighter, more playful, it does not carry functionality and a combination of forms.

Helbling House in Innsbruck, Austria. Photo: James Davis/Corbis Documentary/Getty Images

Rococo architects loved the sinuous, flowing lines and ornate asymmetrical ornamentation of the Baroque. Although most Rococo was centered in France (the style's birthplace), the architecture culminated in Austria and southern Germany, especially in the form of churches.

To better understand the topic.

The Baroque style of architecture is one of the most exciting. During this period, from the end of the 16th century to the dawn of the 18th century, Europe rapidly developed these trends. This is the period when architects began to design not individual buildings, but entire complexes and even took responsibility for planning the entire city.

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