Italian architecture of the Early Renaissance (Quattrocento) opened a new period in the development of European architecture, abandoning the Gothic art dominant in Europe and establishing new principles that were based on the order system.

During this period, ancient philosophy, art and literature were purposefully and consciously studied. Thus, antiquity was layered with strong, centuries-old traditions of the Middle Ages, especially Christian art, due to which the specifically complex nature of the culture of the Renaissance was based on the transformation and interweaving of pagan and Christian subjects.

The Quattrocento is a time of experimental searches, when it was not intuition that came to the fore, as in the era of the Proto-Renaissance, but precise scientific knowledge. Now art played the role of universal knowledge of the surrounding world, about which many scientific treatises of the 15th century were written.

The first theorist of architecture and painting was Leon Batista Alberti, who developed the theory of linear perspective based on the truthful depiction of the depth of space in a painting. This theory formed the basis of new principles of architecture and urban planning aimed at creating an ideal city.

The Renaissance masters began to return to Plato's dream of an ideal city and an ideal state and embodied those ideas that were already central to ancient culture and philosophy - the idea of ​​harmony between man and nature, the idea of ​​humanism. Thus, the new image of the ideal city was at first a kind of formula, a plan, a daring statement for the future.

The theory and practice of urban planning during the Renaissance developed in parallel to each other. Old buildings were rebuilt, new ones were built, and at the same time treatises were written on architecture, fortification and redevelopment of cities. The authors of the treatises (Alberti and Palladio) were far ahead of the needs of practical construction, without describing finished projects, but by presenting a graphically depicted concept, the idea of ​​an ideal city. They also discussed how the city should be laid out from the point of view of defense, economics, aesthetics and hygiene.

Alberti was in fact the first to proclaim the basic principles of the ideal urban ensemble of the Renaissance, developed by synthesizing the ancient sense of proportion and the rationalistic approach of the new era. So, aesthetic principles Renaissance city planners were:

• consistency of architectural scales of the main and secondary buildings;
• the ratio of the height of the building and the space located in front of it (from 1:3 to 1:6);
• absence of dissonant contrasts;
• balance of composition.

The ideal city was of great concern to many great masters of the Renaissance. Leonardo da Vinci also thought about it, whose idea was to create a two-level city, where freight transport moved along the lower level, and ground and pedestrian roads were located on the upper level. Da Vinci's plans also involved the reconstruction of Florence and Milan, as well as the drafting of a spindle-shaped city.

By the end of the 16th century, many urban planning theorists were puzzled by the issue of defensive structures and retail space. Thus, the fortress towers and walls were replaced by earthen bastions outside the city boundaries, thanks to which the outlines of the city began to resemble a multi-rayed star.

And although not a single ideal city was ever built in stone (not counting small fortified cities), many of the principles of building such a city became reality already in the 16th century, when in Italy and many other countries straight wide streets began to be laid that connected important elements of the urban ensemble.

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Federal agency railway transport

Siberian state university communication lines

Department of Philosophy

ARTISTIC IMAGES OF THE RENAISSANCE ERA

Abstract

In the discipline "Culturology"

Head Developed

Professor student gr. D-111

Bystrova A.N. ___________ Kamyshova E.V.

(signature) (signature)

08.12.2012

(date of inspection) (date of submission for inspection)

2012

Introduction

The Renaissance is considered one of the brightest periods in the history of development European culture. We can say that revival is a whole cultural era in the process of transition from the Middle Ages to modern times, during which cultural revolution(fracture, shift). Fundamental changes are associated with the elimination of mythology.

Despite the origin of the term Renaissance (French Renaissance, “renaissance”), there was not and could not be a revival of antiquity. A person cannot return to his past. The Renaissance, using the lessons of antiquity, introduced innovations. He did not bring back to life all ancient genres, but only those that were characteristic of the aspirations of his time and culture. The Renaissance combined a new reading of antiquity with a new reading of Christianity.

The relevance of the chosen topic is due to the connection modern era and the Renaissance is a revolution, first of all, in the value system, in the assessment of everything that exists and in the attitude towards it.

The main goal of the work is to show the fundamental changes that have occurred in the worldview of the greatest figures of the era in question.

1. Renaissance culture

XIII - XVI The centuries were a time of great change in economics, politics and culture. The rapid growth of cities and the development of crafts, and later the transition to manufacturing, transformed the appearance of medieval Europe.

Cities began to come to the fore. Not long before the most powerful forces medieval world- the empire and the papacy were experiencing a deep crisis. IN XVI century, the disintegrating Holy Roman Empire of the German nation became the scene of the first two anti-feudal revolutions - the Great Peasant War in Germany and the Dutch Uprising.

The transitional nature of the era, the process of liberation from medieval ways taking place in all areas of life, at the same time, the still underdevelopment of emerging capitalist relations could not but affect the features of artistic culture and aesthetic thought of that time.

According to A.V. Stepanov, all changes in the life of society were accompanied by a broad renewal of culture - the flourishing of natural and exact sciences, literature in national languages, fine arts. Originating in the cities of Italy, this renewal then spread to other European countries. The author believes that after the advent of printing, unprecedented opportunities opened up for the dissemination of literary and scientific works, and more regular and closer communication between countries contributed to the penetration of new artistic movements.

This did not mean that the Middle Ages retreated to new trends: traditional ideas were preserved in the mass consciousness. The church resisted new ideas using a medieval means - the Inquisition. The idea of ​​freedom of the human person continued to exist in a society divided into classes. The feudal form of dependence of the peasants did not completely disappear, and in some countries (Germany, in Central Europe) there was a return to serfdom. The feudal system showed quite great resilience. Each European country lived it out in its own way and within its own chronological framework. Capitalism for a long time existed as a way of life, covering only part of production in both the city and the countryside. However, patriarchal medieval slowness began to recede into the past.

The Great Geographical Discoveries played a huge role in this breakthrough. For example, in 1492 H. Columbus, in search of a route to India, crossed the Atlantic Ocean and landed at the Bahamas, discovering a new continent - America. In 1498 The Spanish explorer Vasco da Gama, having circumnavigated Africa, successfully brought his ships to the shores of India. WITH XVI V. Europeans penetrate into China and Japan, about which they previously had only the vaguest idea. In 1510 the conquest of America began. IN XVII V. Australia was discovered. The idea of ​​the shape of the earth has changed: trip around the world F. Magellan confirmed the guess that it has the shape of a ball.

Contempt for everything earthly is now replaced by a greedy interest in real world, to man, to the consciousness of the beauty and greatness of nature, which could be proven by analyzing cultural monuments of the Renaissance. The undisputed primacy of theology over science in the Middle Ages was shaken by the belief in unlimited possibilities human mind, which becomes the highest standard of truth. Emphasizing an interest in the human as opposed to the divine, representatives of the new secular intelligentsia called themselves humanists, deriving this word from the concept “ studio humanitanis ", which meant the study of everything related to human nature and his spiritual world.

The works and art of the Renaissance became characterized by the idea of ​​a free being with boundless creative possibilities. It is associated with anthropocentrism in the aesthetics of the Renaissance and the understanding of the beautiful, sublime, and heroic. The principle of a beautiful, artistically creative human personality was combined among the theoreticians of the Renaissance with an attempt to mathematically calculate all kinds of proportions, symmetry, and perspective.

Aesthetic and artistic thinking of this era is for the first time based on human perception as such and on a sensually real picture of the world. What is also striking here is the subjectivist-individualistic thirst for life sensations, regardless of their religious and moral interpretation, although the latter, in principle, is not denied. The aesthetics of the Renaissance orients art towards imitation of nature. However, in the first place here is not so much nature as the artist, who in his creative activity is likened to God.

E. Chamberlin one of essential principles The perception of works of art considers pleasure, because this indicates a significant democratic tendency as opposed to the scholastic “scholarship” of previous aesthetic theories.

Aesthetic thought The Renaissance contains not only the idea of ​​the absolutization of the human individual as opposed to the divine personality in the Middle Ages, but also a certain awareness of the limitations of such individualism, based on the absolute self-affirmation of the individual. Hence the motives of tragedy found in the works of W. Shakespeare, M. Cervantes, Michelangelo and others. This is the inconsistency of a culture that has moved away from ancient-medieval absolutes, but due to historical circumstances has not yet found new reliable foundations.

The connection between art and science is one of the characteristic features culture. Artists sought support in the sciences, often stimulating their development. The Renaissance was marked by the emergence of scientific artists, among whom the first place belongs to Leonardo da Vinci.

Thus, one of the tasks of the Renaissance is for man to comprehend a world filled with divine beauty. The world attracts man because it is spiritualized by God. But during the Renaissance, there was another tendency - a person’s feeling of the tragedy of his existence.

2. Image of the world and man in the works of great masters Renaissance

The term "Renaissance" (translation of the French term "Renaissance") indicates the connection new culture with antiquity. As a result of their acquaintance with the East, in particular with Byzantium, during the era of the Crusades, Europeans became acquainted with ancient humanistic manuscripts and various monuments of ancient fine art and architecture. All these antiquities began to be partially transported to Italy, where they were collected and studied. But in Italy itself there were many ancient Roman monuments, which also began to be carefully studied by representatives of the Italian urban intelligentsia. Italian society developed a deep interest in classical ancient languages, ancient philosophy, history and literature. The city of Florence played a particularly large role in this movement. A number of outstanding figures of the new culture emerged from Florence.

Using ancient ideology, created once in the most vibrant, in economic sense, cities of antiquity, the new bourgeoisie processed it in its own way, formulating its new worldview, sharply opposed to the previously dominant worldview of feudalism. Second name of the new Italian culture- humanism just proves this.

Humanistic culture placed the person himself (humanus - human) at the center of its attention, and not the divine, otherworldly, as was the case in medieval ideology. There was no longer any place for asceticism in the humanistic worldview. The human body, its passions and needs were viewed not as something “sinful” that had to be suppressed or tortured, but as an end in itself, as the most important thing in life. Earthly existence was recognized as the only real one. Knowledge of nature and man was declared the essence of science. In contrast to the pessimistic motives that dominated the worldview of medieval scholastics and mystics, optimistic motives prevailed in the worldview and mood of the people of the Renaissance; They were characterized by faith in man, in the future of humanity, in the triumph of human reason and enlightenment. A galaxy of outstanding poets and writers, scientists and figures various types art participated in this new great intellectual movement. Such wonderful artists brought glory to Italy: Leonardo da Vinci, Giorgione, Michelangelo, Raphael, Titian.

An undoubted achievement of the Renaissance was the geometrically correct design of the painting. The artist built the image using the techniques he developed. The main thing for painters of that time was to maintain the proportions of objects. Even nature fell under mathematical techniques.

In other words, artists during the Renaissance sought to convey an accurate image of, for example, a person against a background of nature. Compared to modern techniques recreating the image seen on some canvas, then, most likely, a photograph with subsequent adjustments will help to understand what the artists of the Renaissance were striving for.

Renaissance painters believed that they had the right to correct the shortcomings of nature, that is, if a person had ugly facial features, the artists corrected them in such a way that the face became sweet and attractive.

Portraying biblical stories, Renaissance artists tried to make it clear that the earthly manifestations of man can be depicted more clearly if biblical stories are used. You can understand what the Fall, temptation, hell or heaven is if you start getting acquainted with the work of artists of that time. The same image of the Madonna conveys to us the beauty of a woman, and also carries within itself an understanding of earthly human love.

Thus, in the art of the Renaissance the paths of scientific and artistic comprehension world and man. Its cognitive meaning was inextricably linked with sublime poetic beauty; in its desire for naturalness, it did not stoop to petty everyday life. Art has become a universal spiritual need.

Conclusion

So, the Renaissance, or Renaissance, is an era in the life of mankind, marked by a colossal rise in art and science. The Renaissance proclaimed man as the highest value of life.

In art main theme became a person with unlimited spiritual and creative possibilities.The art of the Renaissance laid the foundations of European culture of the New Age and radically changed all major types of art.

New types of public buildings have emerged in architecture.Painting has become enriched with linear and aerial perspective, knowledge of the anatomy and proportions of the human body.Earthly content penetrated into the traditional religious themes of works of art. Interest in ancient mythology, history, everyday scenes, landscapes, and portraits increased. A painting appeared, a painting appeared oil paints. The creative individuality of the artist came first in art.

In the art of the Renaissance, the paths of scientific and artistic comprehension of the world and man were closely intertwined.Art has become a universal spiritual need.

Of course, the Renaissance is one of the most beautiful eras in the history of mankind.

REFERENCES

1. KUSTODIEVA T.K. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE ART OF THE XIII-XVI CENTURIES (ESSAY-GUIDE) / T.K. KUSTODIEVA, ART, 1985. 318 P.
2. IMAGES OF LOVE AND BEAUTY IN THE RENAISSANCE CULTURE / L.M. BRAGINA, M., 2008. 309 P.
3. STEPANOV A.V. RENAISSANCE ART. ITALY XIV-XV CENTURIES / A.V. STEPANOV, M., 2007. 610 P.
4. STEPANOV A.V. RENAISSANCE ART. NETHERLANDS, GERMANY, FRANCE, SPAIN, ENGLAND / A.V. STEPANOV, ABC-CLASSICS, 2009. 640 P.
5. CHAMBERLIN E. RENAISSANCE. LIFE, RELIGION, CULTURE / E. CHAMBERLIN, CENTERPOLYGRAPH, 2006. 240 P.

The early 15th century saw huge changes in life and culture in Italy. Since the 12th century, the townspeople, merchants and artisans of Italy have waged a heroic struggle against feudal dependence. By developing trade and production, the townspeople gradually became richer, overthrew the power of the feudal lords and organized free city-states. These free Italian cities became very powerful. Their citizens were proud of their conquests. Huge wealth of independents Italian cities became the reason for their bright flourishing. The Italian bourgeoisie looked at the world with different eyes, they firmly believed in themselves, in their strength. They were alien to the desire for suffering, humility, and the renunciation of all earthly joys that had been preached to them until now. Respect for earthly man who enjoys the joys of life grew. People began to take an active approach to life, eagerly study the world, and admire its beauty. During this period, various sciences were born and art developed.

Italy has preserved many monuments of art Ancient Rome, therefore, the ancient era again began to be revered as a model, ancient art became an object of worship. Imitation of antiquity gave rise to calling this period in art - Renaissance, which means in French "Renaissance". Of course, this was not a blind, exact repetition of ancient art, it was already new art, but based on ancient examples. Italian Renaissance divided into 3 stages: VIII - XIV centuries - Pre-Renaissance (Proto-Renaissance or Trecento-s it.); XV century - early Renaissance (Quattrocento); end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century - High Renaissance.

Archaeological excavations were carried out throughout Italy, looking for ancient monuments. Newly discovered statues, coins, dishes, and weapons were carefully preserved and collected in museums specially created for this purpose. Artists learned from these examples of antiquity and painted them from life.

Trecento (Pre-Renaissance)

The true beginning of the Renaissance is associated with the name Giotto di Bondone (1266? - 1337). He is considered the founder of Renaissance painting. The Florentine Giotto has great services to the history of art. He was a renovator, the founder of all European painting after the Middle Ages. Giotto breathed life into the Gospel scenes, created images real people, spiritual, but earthly.

Giotto first creates volumes using chiaroscuro. He loves clean, light colors in cool shades: pink, pearl gray, pale purple and light lilac. The people in Giotto's frescoes are stocky and walk heavily. They have large facial features, wide cheekbones, narrow eyes. His person is kind, attentive, and serious.

Of Giotto's works, the frescoes in the temples of Padua are the best preserved. He presented the Gospel stories here as existing, earthly, real. In these works, he talks about problems that concern people at all times: about kindness and mutual understanding, deceit and betrayal, about depth, sorrow, meekness, humility and the eternal all-consuming maternal love.

Instead of disparate individual figures, as in medieval painting, Giotto was able to create a coherent story, a whole narrative about the complex inner life of the heroes. Instead of the conventional golden background of Byzantine mosaics, Giotto introduces a landscape background. And if in Byzantine painting the figures seemed to float and hang in space, then the heroes of Giotto’s frescoes found solid ground under their feet. Giotto's quest to convey space, the plasticity of figures, and the expressiveness of movement made his art a whole stage in the Renaissance.

One of the famous masters of the Pre-Renaissance -

Simone Martini (1284 - 1344).

His paintings retained the features of Northern Gothic: Martini's figures are elongated, and, as a rule, on a golden background. But Martini creates images using chiaroscuro, gives them natural movement, and tries to convey a certain psychological state.

Quattrocento (early Renaissance)

Antiquity played a huge role in the formation of the secular culture of the early Renaissance. The Platonic Academy opens in Florence, the Laurentian Library contains a rich collection of ancient manuscripts. The first art museums appeared, filled with statues, fragments of ancient architecture, marbles, coins, and ceramics. During the Renaissance, the main centers emerged artistic life Italy - Florence, Rome, Venice.

Florence was one of the largest centers, the birthplace of new, realistic art. In the 15th century, many famous Renaissance masters lived, studied and worked there.

Early Renaissance architecture

The inhabitants of Florence had a high artistic culture, they actively participated in the creation of city monuments and discussed options for constructing beautiful buildings. Architects abandoned everything that resembled Gothic. Under the influence of antiquity, buildings topped with a dome began to be considered the most perfect. The model here was the Roman Pantheon.

Florence is one of the most beautiful cities in the world, a city-museum. It has preserved its architecture from antiquity almost intact, its most beautiful buildings being mainly built during the Renaissance. Rising above the red brick roofs of the ancient buildings of Florence is the huge building of the city cathedral. Santa Maria del Fiore, which is often called simply the Florence Cathedral. Its height reaches 107 meters. A magnificent dome, the harmony of which is emphasized by white stone ribs, crowns the cathedral. The dome is amazing in size (its diameter is 43 m), it crowns the entire panorama of the city. The cathedral is visible from almost every street in Florence, clearly silhouetted against the sky. This magnificent building was built by an architect

Filippo Brunelleschi (1377 - 1446).

The most magnificent and famous domed building of the Renaissance was St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. It took more than 100 years to build. The creators of the original project were architects Bramante and Michelangelo.

Renaissance buildings are decorated with columns, pilasters, lion heads and "putti"(naked babies), plaster wreaths of flowers and fruits, leaves and many details, examples of which were found in the ruins of ancient Roman buildings. Came into fashion again semicircular arch. Wealthy people began to build more beautiful and more comfortable houses. Instead of houses closely pressed together, luxurious ones appeared palaces - palazzos.

Early Renaissance sculpture

In the 15th century, two famous sculptors worked in Florence - Donatello and Verrocchio.Donatello (1386? - 1466)- one of the first sculptors in Italy who used the experience of ancient art. He created one of the beautiful works of the early Renaissance - the statue of David.

According to the biblical legend, a simple shepherd, the young man David defeated the giant Goliath, and thereby saved the inhabitants of Judea from enslavement and later became king. David was one of the favorite images of the Renaissance. He is depicted by the sculptor not as a humble saint from the Bible, but as a young hero, winner, protector hometown. In his sculpture, Donatello glorifies man as the ideal of a beautiful heroic personality that arose during the Renaissance. David is crowned with the laurel wreath of the winner. Donatello was not afraid to introduce such a detail as a shepherd's hat - a sign of his simple origin. In the Middle Ages, the church forbade depicting the naked body, considering it a vessel of evil. Donatello was the first master to bravely violate this prohibition. He asserts by this that the human body is beautiful. The statue of David is the first round sculpture of that era.

Another beautiful sculpture of Donatello is also known - the statue of a warrior , general of Gattamelata. It was the first equestrian monument of the Renaissance. Created 500 years ago, this monument still stands on a high pedestal, decorating a square in the city of Padua. For the first time, not a god, not a saint, not a noble and rich person was immortalized in sculpture, but a noble, brave and formidable warrior with great soul, who has earned fame through great deeds. Dressed in antique armor, Gattemelata (this is his nickname, meaning “spotted cat”) sits on a powerful horse in a calm, majestic pose. The warrior’s facial features emphasize a decisive, firm character.

Andrea Verrocchio (1436 -1488)

The most famous student of Donatello, who created the famous equestrian monument to the condottiere Colleoni, which was erected in Venice in the square near the Church of San Giovanni. The main thing that is striking about the monument is the joint energetic movement of horse and rider. The horse seems to rush beyond the marble pedestal on which the monument is installed. Colleoni, standing up in his stirrups, stretched out, holding his head high, peers into the distance. A grimace of anger and tension was frozen on his face. There is a sense of great will in his posture, his face resembles a bird of prey. The image is filled with indestructible strength, energy, and stern authority.

Early Renaissance painting

The Renaissance also renewed the art of painting. Painters have learned to accurately convey space, light and shadow, natural poses, and various human feelings. It was the early Renaissance that was the time of accumulation of this knowledge and skills. The paintings of that time are imbued with a bright and upbeat mood. The background is often written in light colors, and buildings and natural motifs are outlined with sharp lines, pure colors predominate. All the details of the event are depicted with naive diligence; the characters are most often lined up and separated from the background by clear contours.

The painting of the early Renaissance only strived for perfection, however, thanks to its sincerity, it touches the soul of the viewer.

Tommaso di Giovanni di Simone Cassai Guidi, known as Masaccio (1401 - 1428)

He is considered a follower of Giotto and the first master of painting of the early Renaissance. Masaccio lived only 28 years, but during his lifetime short life left a mark on art that is difficult to overestimate. He managed to complete the revolutionary transformations begun by Giotto in painting. His paintings are distinguished by dark and deep colors. The people in Masaccio's frescoes are much denser and more powerful than in the paintings of the Gothic era.

Masaccio was the first to correctly arrange objects in space, taking into account the perspective; He began to depict people according to the laws of anatomy.

He knew how to connect figures and landscape into a single action, dramatically and at the same time quite naturally conveying the life of nature and people - and this is the great merit of the painter.

This is one of the few easel works by Masaccio, commissioned from him in 1426 for the chapel in the church of Santa Maria del Carmine in Pisa.

The Madonna sits on a throne built strictly according to Giotto's laws of perspective. Her figure is painted with confident and clear strokes, which creates the impression of sculptural volume. Her face is calm and sad, her detached gaze is directed into nowhere. Wrapped in a dark blue cloak, the Virgin Mary holds in her arms the Child, whose golden figure stands out sharply against a dark background. The deep folds of the cloak allow the artist to play with chiaroscuro, which also creates a special visual effect. The baby eats black grapes - a symbol of communion. Flawlessly drawn angels (the artist knew human anatomy very well) surrounding the Madonna give the picture an additional emotional resonance.

The only panel painted by Masaccio for a double-sided triptych. After the early death of the painter, the rest of the work, commissioned by Pope Martin V for the Church of Santa Maria in Rome, was completed by the artist Masolino. Here are depicted two austere, monumentally executed figures of saints, dressed all in red. Jerome holds an open book and a model of the basilica, with a lion lying at his feet. John the Baptist is depicted in his usual form: he is barefoot and holds a cross in his hand. Both figures amaze with their anatomical precision and almost sculptural sense of volume.

Interest in man and admiration for his beauty were so great during the Renaissance that this led to the emergence of a new genre in painting - the portrait genre.

Pinturicchio (version of Pinturicchio) (1454 - 1513) (Bernardino di Betto di Biagio)

Native of Perugia in Italy. For some time he painted miniatures and helped Pietro Perugino decorate with frescoes Sistine Chapel in Rome. Gained experience in the most complex form of decorative and monumental wall painting. Within a few years, Pinturicchio became an independent muralist. He worked on frescoes in the Borgia apartments in the Vatican. He did wall paintings in the library of the Cathedral in Siena.

The artist not only conveys a portrait likeness, but strives to reveal internal state person. Before us is a teenage boy, dressed in a formal pink city dweller’s dress, with a small blue cap on his head. Brown hair goes down to the shoulders, framing a gentle face, the attentive gaze of brown eyes is thoughtful, a little anxious. Behind the boy is an Umbrian landscape with thin trees, a silver river, and a pink sky on the horizon. The spring tenderness of nature, as an echo of the character of the hero, is in harmony with the poetry and charm of the hero.

The image of the boy is given in the foreground, large and occupies almost the entire plane of the picture, and the landscape is painted in the background and very small. This creates the impression of the significance of man, his dominance over the surrounding nature, and affirms that man is the most beautiful creation on earth.

Here is the solemn departure of Cardinal Capranica for the Council of Basel, which lasted almost 18 years, from 1431 to 1449, first in Basel and then in Lausanne. The young Piccolomini was also in the cardinal's retinue. A group of horsemen accompanied by pages and servants is presented in an elegant frame of a semicircular arch. The event is not so real and reliable as it is chivalrously refined, almost fantastic. In the foreground, a handsome rider on a white horse, wearing a luxurious dress and hat, turns his head and looks at the viewer - this is Aeneas Silvio. The artist takes pleasure in painting rich clothes and beautiful horses in velvet blankets. The elongated proportions of the figures, slightly mannered movements, slight tilts of the head are close to the court ideal. The life of Pope Pius II was full of bright events, and Pinturicchio spoke about the meetings of the pope with the King of Scotland, with Emperor Frederick III.

Filippo Lippi (1406 - 1469)

Legends arose about Lippi's life. He himself was a monk, but left the monastery, became a wandering artist, kidnapped a nun from the monastery and died, poisoned by the relatives of a young woman with whom he fell in love in old age.

He painted images of the Madonna and Child, filled with living human feelings and experiences. In his paintings he depicted many details: everyday objects, surroundings, so his religious subjects were similar to secular paintings.

Domenico Ghirlandaio (1449 - 1494)

He painted not only religious subjects, but also scenes from the life of the Florentine nobility, their wealth and luxury, and portraits of noble people.

Before us is the wife of a rich Florentine, a friend of the artist. In this not very beautiful, luxuriously dressed young woman, the artist expressed calm, a moment of stillness and silence. The expression on the woman’s face is cold, indifferent to everything, it seems that she foresees her imminent death: soon after painting the portrait she will die. The woman is depicted in profile, which is typical for many portraits of that time.

Piero della Francesca (1415/1416 - 1492)

One of the most significant names in Italian painting of the 15th century. He completed numerous transformations in the methods of constructing the perspective of pictorial space.

The painting was painted on a poplar board with egg tempera - obviously, by this time the artist had not yet mastered the secrets of oil painting, the technique in which his later works would be painted.

The artist captured the appearance of the mystery of the Holy Trinity at the moment of the Baptism of Christ. White dove, spreading wings over the head of Christ, symbolizes the descent of the Holy Spirit onto the Savior. The figures of Christ, John the Baptist and the angels standing next to them are painted in restrained colors.
His frescoes are solemn, sublime and majestic. Francesca believed in the high destiny of man and in his works people always do wonderful things. He used subtle, gentle transitions of colors. Francesca was the first to paint en plein air (in the open air).

After the completion of the main construction work in Versailles, at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries, Andre Le Nôtre began active work on the redevelopment of Paris. He laid out the layout of the Tuileries Park, clearly fixing the central axis on the continuation of the longitudinal axis of the Louvre ensemble. After Le Nôtre, the Louvre was finally rebuilt and the Place de la Concorde was created. The major axis of Paris gave a completely different interpretation of the city, meeting the requirements of greatness, grandeur and pomp. The composition of open urban spaces and the system of architecturally designed streets and squares became the determining factor in the planning of Paris. Definition geometric pattern streets and squares linked into a single whole will for many years become a criterion for assessing the perfection of the urban plan and the skill of the urban planner. Many cities around the world will subsequently experience the influence of the classic Parisian model.

A new understanding of the city as an object of architectural influence on humans finds clear expression in the work on urban ensembles. In the process of their construction, the main and fundamental principles of classicism urban planning were outlined - free development in space and an organic connection with the environment. Overcoming the chaos of urban development, architects sought to create ensembles designed for free and unobstructed views.

Renaissance dreams of creating an “ideal city” were embodied in the formation of a new type of square, the boundaries of which were no longer the facades of certain buildings, but the space of adjacent streets and neighborhoods, parks or gardens, and the river embankment. Architecture strives to connect in a certain ensemble unity not only buildings directly adjacent to each other, but also very distant points of the city.

Second half of the 18th century. and the first third of the 19th century. in France they celebrate new stage development of classicism and its spread in European countries - neoclassicism. After the Great french revolution And Patriotic War In 1812, new priorities appeared in urban planning, in tune with the spirit of their time. They found their most vivid expression in the Empire style. It was characterized by the following features: ceremonial pathos of imperial grandeur, monumentality, appeal to the art of imperial Rome and Ancient Egypt, the use of attributes of Roman military history as the main decorative motifs.

The essence of the new artistic style was very accurately conveyed in the significant words of Napoleon Bonaparte:

“I love power, but as an artist... I love it to extract sounds, chords, harmony from it.”

Empire style became the personification of the political power and military glory of Napoleon, and served as a unique manifestation of his cult. The new ideology fully corresponded to the political interests and artistic tastes of the new time. Large architectural ensembles of open squares, wide streets and avenues were created everywhere, bridges, monuments and public buildings were erected, demonstrating the imperial grandeur and power of power.

For example, the Austerlitz Bridge commemorated Napoleon's great battle and was built from Bastille stones. At Place Carrousel was built triumphal arch in honor of the victory at Austerlitz. Two squares (Concord and Stars), located at a considerable distance from each other, were connected by architectural perspectives.

Church of Saint Genevieve, erected by J. J. Soufflot, became the Pantheon - the resting place of the great people of France. One of the most spectacular monuments of that time is the column of the Grand Army on Place Vendôme. Likened to the ancient Roman Column of Trajan, it was supposed, according to the plans of the architects J. Gondoin and J. B. Leper, to express the spirit of the New Empire and Napoleon’s thirst for greatness.

In the bright interior decoration of palaces and public buildings, solemnity and stately pomp were especially highly valued; their decor was often overloaded with military paraphernalia. The dominant motifs were contrasting color combinations and elements of Roman and Egyptian ornaments: eagles, griffins, urns, wreaths, torches, grotesques. The Empire style manifested itself most clearly in the interiors of the imperial residences of the Louvre and Malmaison.

The era of Napoleon Bonaparte ended by 1815, and very soon they began to actively eradicate its ideology and tastes. From the “disappeared like a dream” Empire, all that remained were works of art in the Empire style, clearly demonstrating its former greatness.

Questions and tasks

1.Why can Versailles be considered an outstanding work?

How urban planning ideas XVIII classicism V. found their practical embodiment in the architectural ensembles of Paris, for example the Place de la Concorde? What distinguishes it from the Italian baroque squares of Rome in the 17th century, such as Piazza del Popolo (see p. 74)?

2. What is the expression of the connection between Baroque and classicism architecture? What ideas did classicism inherit from Baroque?

3. What are historical background for the emergence of the Empire style? What new ideas of his time did he strive to express in works of art? Which artistic principles is he leaning?

Creative workshop

1. Give your classmates a correspondence tour of Versailles. To prepare it, you can use video materials from the Internet. The parks of Versailles and Peterhof are often compared. What do you think are the grounds for such comparisons?

2. Try to compare the image of the “ideal city” of the Renaissance with the classic ensembles of Paris (St. Petersburg or its suburbs).

3. Compare the design of the interior decoration (interiors) of the gallery of Francis I in Fontainebleau and the Gallery of Mirrors at Versailles.

4. Get acquainted with the paintings of the Russian artist A. N. Benois (1870-1960) from the series “Versailles. The King's Walk" (see p. 74). How they are conveyed general atmosphere court life of the French king Louis XIV? Why can they be considered as a kind of symbolic paintings?

Topics of projects, abstracts or messages

“Formation of classicism in French architecture of the 17th-18th centuries”; “Versailles as a model of harmony and beauty of the world”; “A walk through Versailles: the connection between the composition of the palace and the layout of the park”; “Masterpieces of Western European Classicism Architecture”; “Napoleonic Empire in the architecture of France”; "Versailles and Peterhof: experience comparative characteristics"; “Artistic discoveries in the architectural ensembles of Paris”; “The squares of Paris and the development of the principles of regular city planning”; “Clarity of composition and balance of volumes of the Cathedral of the Invalides in Paris”; “Place de la Concorde - a new stage in the development of urban planning ideas of classicism”; “The harsh expressiveness of the volumes and the sparse decor of the Church of Saint Genevieve (Pantheon) by J. Soufflot”; “Features of classicism in the architecture of Western European countries”; "Outstanding architects of Western European classicism."

Books for further reading

Arkin D. E. Images of architecture and images of sculpture. M., 1990. Kantor A. M. et al. Art XVIII century. M., 1977. (Small history of art).

Classicism and Romanticism: Architecture. Sculpture. Painting. Drawing / ed. R. Toman. M., 2000.

Kozhina E. F. Art France XVIII century. L., 1971.

LenotreJ. Daily life Versailles under the kings. M., 2003.

Miretskaya N.V., Miretskaya E.V., Shakirova I.P. Culture of the Enlightenment. M., 1996.

Watkin D. History of Western European architecture. M., 1999. Fedotova E.D. Napoleonic Empire style. M., 2008.

During the Renaissance, an attitude was gradually formed among architects towards a structure as part of a whole, which must be able to relate to the surrounding space, and be able to find a contrasting, mutually beneficial combination of different structures. The culture of urban planning of the Renaissance took shape gradually and in various ensembles - in San Marco Square in Venice, in the ensemble of the Educational House of the Silkworm Workshop of the architect. Brunelleschi et al. Great value played out the use of arcades and colonnades along the streets, which gave urban development noticeable community features (Uffizi Street in Florence by the architect Vasari).

A significant contribution to the formation of examples of an architectural ensemble isCapitol Square in Rome,designed by Michelangelo. Opening the square to the city while simultaneously subordinating the space of the square to the main building is new feature, introduced by Michelangelo into the architecture of urban ensembles.

Gradually, in the understanding of architects, the idea of ​​the city as a single whole, in which all parts are interconnected, matured. New firearms rendered medieval stone fortifications defenseless. This predetermined the appearance of earthen walls along the perimeter of cities.bastionsand determined the star shape of the line of city fortifications. Cities of this type appeared in the 2/3 of the 16th century. A revivalist idea of"ideal city" -the city most convenient for living.

In organizing the urban area, Renaissance architects followed 3 basic principles:
1. class settlement (for nobles - the central and best parts of the city);
2. professional-group settlement of the rest of the population (artisans of related professions are nearby);
3. division of the city territory into residential, industrial, commercial and public complexes.
The layout of “ideal cities” must necessarily be regular or radial-circular, but the choice of layout must be determined natural conditions: relief, reservoir, river, winds, etc.

Palma Nuova, 1593

Usually in the center of the city there was a main public square with a castle or with a town hall and a church in the middle. Trade or religious areas of regional significance in radial cities were located at the intersection of radial streets with one of the city’s ring highways.
These projects also involved significant improvement - landscaping streets, creating channels for rainwater drainage and sewerage. Houses had to have certain height ratios and distances between them for the best insolation and ventilation.
Despite their utopianism, the theoretical developments of the “ideal cities” of the Renaissance had some influence on the practice of urban planning, especially when constructing small fortifications in a short time(Valetta, Palma Nuova, Granmichele- 16th -17th centuries).