The world of heroes (the reality of a literary work through the eyes of its characters, in their horizons = a narrated event) in the theory of literature is described in the system of categories: chronotope, event, plot, motive, type of plot. Chronotope - literally "timespace" = a work of art represents a "small universe". The concept of chronotope characterizes the general features (characteristics) of the world depicted in the work. From the side of the hero (characters)- these are the inalienable conditions of his (their) existence, the action of the hero is his reaction to the state of the artistic world. By the author the chronotope is the author's value reaction to the world depicted by him, the actions and words of the hero. Spatial and temporal characteristics do not exist in isolation from each other, in the picture of the world the categories of space and time are basic, they determine other characteristics of this world = the nature of the connections in the art world follows from the spatio-temporal organization of the work = from the chronotope. “Space is comprehended and measured by time” = the reality of the artistic world looks different for the author, who contemplates it from the outside and from another time, and the hero, acting and thinking inside this reality. art space not measured in universal units (meters or minutes). Artistic space and time is a symbolic reality.

So artistic time for the participants in the event (the hero, the narrator and the characters surrounding the hero) can flow at different speeds: the Hero can be completely excluded from the flow of time. In a fairy tale, a long time period. But despite this, the characters remain as young as they were at the beginning of the tale. Time in a work of art can be inverted - events do not occur in a "natural" sequence, but in a special space and time here, they are perceived as forms of consciousness, i.e. a form of human comprehension of being, and not its "objective" reproduction. (for example, Tolstoy's story "The Death of Ivan Ilyich" begins with the image of how the acquaintances of the hero, having learned about his death, come to say goodbye to the deceased. And only after that the whole life of the hero unfolds before the reader, starting from childhood. The space of any work of art is organized as a number of value oppositions: Opposition "closed - open".

In the novel “Crime and Punishment”, the images of a closed space are directly associated with death and crime (the closet where Raskolnikov’s “idea” matures is directly called the “coffin”, and he himself is correlated with the Gospel Lazarus, who “has been stinking for three days now”).

Raskolnikov wanders around the city, moving farther and farther away from his closet-coffin = instinctively seeks to break the vicious circle of St. Petersburg, which in this regard is associated with the closet-coffin. It is no coincidence that Raskolnikov's renunciation of his "idea" takes place on the banks of the Irtysh, from where a look at the endless steppes opens. Opposite value orientation. For example, an idyllic literary genre organized by the opposition of the open, open space"big world" as the world of anti-values ​​to the world of closed space as the world of true values, in which they can only exist, and the hero's exit beyond the limits of this world is the beginning of his spiritual or physical death.Vertical organization of space. An example is Dante's Divine Comedy with its hierarchically ordered picture of the world.Horizontal organization of artistic space. Center to periphery ratio: landscape or portrait, with emphasis on details that come out to the center of the image. For example, the emphasis on the eyes of the hero (Pechorin), or the “red hands” of Bazarov. When the same historical event occupies a different place in the picture of the world: in Mayakovsky’s poem “Vladimir Ilyich Lenin”, Lenin’s death is the center of artistic space, and in Nabokov’s novel “The Gift”, the same event is said in passing “Lenin died somehow imperceptibly ".The opposition of "right" and "left".For example, in a fairy tale, the world of people is invariably located on the right, and on the left is the “other” world in everything, including, first of all, the value-opposite one. The same patterns can be found in the analysis of artistic time. The nature of artistic time is manifested in the fact that in a work of art the time of coverage of events and the time of events almost never coincide. Because such slowing down and speeding up of time is a form of assessment (self-assessment) of the hero's life as a whole. Events covering a large period of time can be given in one line, or not even mentioned, but simply implied, while events that take moments can be depicted in extreme detail (Praskuhin's dying thoughts in the "Sevastopol stories"). Opposition of cyclic, reversible and linear, irreversible time: Time can move in a circle, passing through the same points. For example, natural cycles (change of seasons), age cycles, sacred time, when all events occurring in time realize some kind of invariant, i.e. changing only outwardly situation = behind the variety of events taking place in it, there is one and the same recurring situation, revealing their true and unchanging, repetitive meaning "A lamb on a hot day went to the stream to drink." When did this event happen? In the world of the fable, this question does not make sense, since in the world of the fable it is repeated at any time. . While in the world of a historical or realistic novel, this question is of fundamental importance. historical time can act as an anti-value, it can act as destructive time, then cyclic time acts as a positive value. For example, in the book of the Russian writer of the 20th century. Ivan Shmelev "Summer of the Lord": here is life organized according to church calendar, from one sacred holiday to another - a guarantee of preserving authentic spiritual values,

and involvement in historical time is a guarantee of a spiritual catastrophe both for an individual human person and for the human community as a whole. A variant is widespread in the literature, when in the value hierarchy open time is valued higher than cyclic time, for example, in a Russian realistic novel, the degree of involvement of the hero in the forces of historical renewal turns out to be a measure of his spiritual value. The chronotope, being unified, is nevertheless internally heterogeneous. Within the general chronotope, there are private. For example, within the general chronotope " dead souls» Gogol, individual chronotopes can be distinguished roads, estates, h we begin in the work the chronotope of a city, a country. So, in the general chronotope of Russia, given in "Eugene Onegin", the separation of the spaces of the village and the capital is significant. Chronotopes are historically changeable, the spatio-temporal organization of literature as a whole of one historical era differs significantly from the spatio-temporal organization of literature as a whole of another historical era. Chronotopes also have genre variability. = All the real variety of chronotopes of one and the same genre can be reduced to one model, one type.

Artistic time is the reproduction of time in a work of art, the most important compositional component of the work. It is not identical with objective time. There are three types of artistic time: ““idyllic time”, in the father’s house, “adventurous time” of trials in a foreign land, “mystery time” of descent into the underworld of disasters. "Adventurous" time is presented in the novel by Apuleius "The Golden Ass", "idyllic" time - in the novel by I.A. Goncharova "Ordinary story", "mysterious" - in the novel "The Master and Margarita" by M.S. Bulgakov. Time in a work of art can be stretched out (the method of retardation - the author uses landscapes, portraits, interiors, philosophical reasoning, lyrical digressions - the collection "Notes of a Hunter" by I.S. Turgenev) or accelerated (the author designates all the events that have occurred for a long time with two- three phrases - the epilogue of the novel " Noble Nest» I.S. Turgenev (“So, eight years have passed”)). The time of the plot action can be combined in the work with the author's time. The emphasis on the author's time, its differences from the time of the events of the work is characteristic of the literature of sentimentalism (Stern, Fielding). The combination of plot and author's time is typical for the novel by A.S. Pushkin "Eugene Onegin".

There are different types of artistic time: linear (corresponds to the past, present and future, events are continuous and irreversible - the poem "Winter. What should we do in the village? I meet ..." A.S. Pushkin) and cyclic (events are repeated, occur during cycles - daily, annual, etc. - the poem "Works and Days" by Hesiod); “closed” (limited by plot frames - the story “Mumu” ​​by I.S. Turgenev) and “open” (included in a specific historical era- epic novel "War and Peace" by L.N. Tolstoy); objective (not refracted through the perception of the author or characters, described in traditional units of time measurement - days, weeks, months, etc. - the story "One Day in Ivan Denisovich" by A.I. Solzhenitsyn) and subjective (perceptual) (given through the prism the perception of the author or the hero - the perception of time by Raskolnikov in the novel by F. M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment"); mythological (poems by E. Baratynsky "The Last Poet", "Signs") and historical (description of the past, historical events in the life of the state, the human person, etc. - the novel "Prince Silver" by A.K. Tolstoy, the poem "Pugachev" by S.A. Yesenin). In addition, M. Bakhtin also identifies psychological time (a kind of subjective time), crisis time (the last moment of time before death or before contact with mystical forces), carnival time (which has fallen out of real historical time and includes many metamorphoses and transformations).

Also worth noting are artistic techniques, as retrospection (reference to the past of the characters or the author), prospection (reference to the future, author's hints, sometimes open indications of events that will occur in the future).

To establish deep (substantive) differences between fiction and non-fiction text, one can refer to the representation of such categories as time and space. The specificity here is obvious, and it is not for nothing that philology also has the corresponding terms: artistic time and artistic space.

It is known that the sense of time for a person in different periods of his life is subjective: it can stretch or shrink. Such subjectivity of sensations is used in different ways by the authors of literary texts: a moment can last for a long time or stop altogether, and large time periods can flash by overnight. Artistic time is a sequence in the description of events subjectively perceived. Such a perception of time becomes one of the forms of depicting reality, when the time perspective changes at the will of the author. Moreover, the time perspective can be shifted, the past can be thought of as the present, and the future can appear as the past, etc.

For example, in the poem “Wait for me” by K. Simonov, subjective transfers in time are used: the feeling of expectation is transferred to the plan of the past. The beginning of the poem is built as a repeated call to expectation (wait for me and I will return, just wait a lot. Wait until ...). This "wait when" and just "wait" is repeated ten times. Thus, the prospect of the future, which has not yet come to pass, is outlined. However, at the end of the poem, the event is stated as having happened:

Wait for me and I will come back
All deaths out of spite.
Who did not wait for me, let him
He will say: "Lucky."
Do not understand those who did not wait for them,
Like in the middle of a fire
Waiting for your
You saved me
How I survived, we will know
Only you and I -
You just knew how to wait
Like no one else.

So the prospect of the future abruptly ended, and the theme “Wait, and I'll be back” turned into an affirmation of the result of this expectation, given in the past tense forms: lucky, saved, survived, knew how to wait. The use of the category of time has thus become a specific compositional technique, and the subjectivity in the presentation of the time plan was reflected in the fact that the expectation moved into the past. Such a shift makes it possible to feel confident in the outcome of events, the future is, as it were, predetermined, inevitable.

The category of time in a literary text is also complicated by its two-dimensionality - this is the time of the narration and the time of the event. Therefore, time shifts are quite natural. Events remote in time can be depicted as happening directly, for example, in a character's retelling. Temporal bifurcation is a common narrative technique in which the stories of different people intersect, including the actual author of the text.

But such a bifurcation is possible without the intervention of characters in the coverage of past and present events. For example, in I. Bunin's "Last Spring" there is an episode-picture drawn by the author:

No, it's already spring.

Today we went again. And all the way they were silent - fog and spring drowsiness. There is no sun, but behind the fog there is already a lot of spring light, and the fields are so white that it is difficult to see. Curly lilac forests are barely visible in the distance.

Near the village a fellow in a yellow calfskin jacket crossed the road, with a gun. Quite a wild hunter. He glanced at us without bowing, and went straight across the snow to a forest darkening in the hollow. The gun is short, with cut barrels and a homemade stock painted with red lead. A large yard dog runs indifferently behind.

Even the wormwood sticking out along the road, out of the snow, into the hoarfrost; but spring, spring. Blissfully dozing, sitting on snowy dung heaps scattered across the field, hawks, gently merge with snow and fog, with all this thick, soft and light white, which is full of a happy pre-spring world.

The narrator tells here about the past (albeit not far in time - now) trip. However, imperceptibly, unobtrusively, the narration is translated into the plane of the present. The picture-event of the past reappears before the eyes and, as it were, freezes in immobility. Time stopped.

Space, like time, can shift at the will of the author. Artistic space is created through the use of an image angle; this happens as a result of a mental change in the place from which the observation is carried out: a general, small plan is replaced by a large one, and vice versa.

If, for example, we take a poem by M.Yu. Lermontov’s “Sail” and consider it from the point of view of spatial sensations, it turns out that the distant and close will be combined at one point: at first, the sail is seen at a great distance, it is even faintly distinguishable due to fog (near fog would not hurt).

A lonely sail turns white
In the fog of the blue sea! ..

(By the way, in original version about the remoteness of the observed object, it was directly said: The distant sail turns white.)

Waves play - the wind whistles,
And the mast bends and hides...

In the foggy distance it would be difficult to distinguish the details of a sailboat, and even more so to see how the mast bends and hear how it creaks. And, finally, at the end of the poem, together with the author, we moved to the sailboat itself, otherwise we would not have been able to see what was under and above it:

Under it, a stream of lighter azure,
Above him is a golden ray of sunshine...

So the image is noticeably enlarged and, as a result, the detailing of the image is enhanced.

In an artistic text, spatial concepts can generally be transformed into concepts of a different plane. According to M.Yu. Lotman, art space is a model of the world this author, expressed in the language of his spatial representations.

Spatial concepts in a creative, artistic context can only be an external, verbal image, but convey a different content, not spatial. For example, for B. Pasternak, "horizon" is both a temporary concept (the future), and an emotional and evaluative one (happiness), and a mythological "way to heaven" (i.e., to creativity). The horizon is the place where the earth converges with the sky, or the sky "descends" to the earth, then the poet is inspired, he experiences creative delight. This means that this is not a real horizon as a spatial concept, but something else, connected with the state of the lyrical hero, and in this case it can shift and be very close:

In a thunderstorm purple eyes and lawns
And the horizon smells of raw mignonette, -
smells so close...

Space and time are the main forms of being, life, exactly how such realities are recreated in non-fiction texts, in particular in scientific ones, and in artistic texts they can transform, pass one into another.

A. Voznesensky wrote:
What an asymmetrical time!
The last minutes - in short,
The last parting is longer.

The category of time has a peculiar form of expression not only in a literary text. The non-fiction text is also notable for its "relationship" to time. Such texts as legislative, instructive, reference, are guided by the "non-temporal" expression of thought. Verb forms the tenses used here do not mean at all what they are intended to mean, in particular, the forms of the present tense convey the meaning of the constancy of a sign, property or constancy of the action being performed. Such meanings are abstracted from specific verb forms. Time seems to be non-existent here. This is how, for example, descriptive material is presented in encyclopedias:

Jays. Jay stands out in the "black family" of corvids with the beauty of variegated plumage. This is a very smart, mobile and noisy forest bird. Seeing a person or a predatory beast, she always raises a fuss, and her loud cries of “gee-gee-gee” are carried through the forest. In open spaces, the jay flies slowly and heavily. In the forest, she deftly flies from branch to branch, from tree to tree, maneuvering between them. Jumps on the ground<...>.

Only during nesting jays seem to disappear - their cries are not heard, birds flying or climbing everywhere are not visible. Jays fly at this time silently, hiding behind the branches, and imperceptibly fly up to the nest.

After the departure of the chicks, at the end of May - in June, the jays gather in small flocks and again roam noisily through the forest (Encyclopedia for Children. Vol. 2).

The instructive type of text (for example, prescription, recommendation) is built entirely on a language stereotype, where temporary meanings are completely eliminated: One should proceed from ...; You need to keep in mind...; Must point to...; Recommended...; etc.

The use of verb forms of time in a scientific text is also peculiar, for example: “An event is determined by the place where it happened and the time when it happened. It is often useful for reasons of clarity to use an imaginary four-dimensional space... In this space, an event is represented by a dot. These points are called world points” (L.D. Landau, E.M. Lifshits. Field Theory). The verbal forms of time indicate in such a text the meaning of constancy.

So, literary and non-fictional texts, although they are sequences of statements united in inter-phrase units and fragments, are fundamentally different in their essence - functionally, structurally, communicatively. Even the semantic "behavior" of a word in artistic and non-artistic contexts is different. In non-fiction texts, the word is focused on the expression of a nominative-subjective meaning and on unambiguity, while in a literary text, the hidden meanings of the word are actualized, creating a new vision of the world and its assessment, versatility, and semantic extensions. A non-fiction text is focused on reflecting reality, strictly limited by the laws of logical causality; a literary text, as belonging to art, is free from these restrictions.

Fiction and non-fiction texts are fundamentally different in their orientation towards different sides the personality of the reader, his emotional and intellectual structure. Artistic text first of all, it affects the emotional structure (souls), is associated with the personal feelings of the reader - hence the expressiveness, emotiveness, mood for empathy; non-fiction text appeals more to the mind, the intellectual structure of the personality - hence the neutrality of expression and detachment from the personal-emotional principle.

INTRODUCTION

Subject thesis"Features of the spatio-temporal organization of the plays of Botho Strauss".

Relevance and novelty works are that the German playwright, novelist and essayist Boto Strauss, representative new drama, practically unknown in Russia. One book was published with translations of 6 of his plays (“So big - and so small”, “Time and Room”, “Ithaca”, “Hypochondriacs”, “Spectators”, “Park”) and introductory remarks Vladimir Kolyazin. Also in the dissertation work of I.S. Roganova, Strauss is mentioned as the author with whom the German postmodern drama begins. The production of his plays in Russia was carried out only once - by Oleg Rybkin in 1995 in the Red Torch, the play "Time and Room". Interest in this author began with a note about this performance in one of the Novosibirsk newspapers.

Target- identification and description of the features of the spatio-temporal organization of the author's plays.

Tasks: analysis of the spatial and temporal organization of each play; identification of common features, patterns in the organization.

object are the following plays by Strauss: "The Hypochondriacs", "So Big - and So Small", "Park", "Time and Room".

Subject are the features of the spatio-temporal organization of the plays.

This work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and a bibliography.

The introduction indicates the topic, relevance, object, subject, goals and objectives of the work.

The first chapter consists of two paragraphs: the concept of artistic time and space, artistic time and artistic space in drama, changes in the reflection of these categories that arose in the twentieth century, and part of the second paragraph is devoted to the influence of cinema on the composition and spatio-temporal organization of the new drama. .

The second chapter consists of two paragraphs: the organization of space in plays, the organization of time. The first paragraph reveals such features of the organization as the closedness of space, the relevance of indicators of the boundaries of this closeness, the shift in emphasis from external to internal space - memory, associations, montage in the organization. In the second paragraph, the following features of the organization of the category of time are revealed: montage, fragmentation associated with the relevance of the motive of recollection, retrospectiveness. Thus, montage becomes the main principle in the spatio-temporal organization of the plays under study.

In the study, we relied on the work of Yu.N. Tynyanov, O.V. Zhurcheva, V. Kolyazina, Yu.M. Lotman, M.M. Bakhtin, P. Pavi.

The volume of work - 60 pages. The list of sources used includes 54 names.

CATEGORIES OF SPACE AND TIME IN DRAMA

SPACE AND TIME IN A ARTWORK

Space and time - categories that include ideas, knowledge about the world order, the place and role of a person in it, give grounds for describing and analyzing the ways of their speech expression and representation in the fabric of a work of art. Understood in this way, these categories can be considered as means of interpreting a literary text.

AT literary encyclopedia we will find the following definition for these categories, written by I. Rodnyanskaya: “artistic time and artistic space are the most important characteristics artistic image, organizing the composition of the work and ensuring its perception as an integral and original artistic reality.<…>Its very content [of the literary and poetic image] necessarily reproduces the spatio-temporal picture of the world (transmitted by indirect means of storytelling) and, moreover, in its symbolic and ideological aspect” [Rodnyanskaya I. Artistic time and artistic space. http://feb-web.ru/feb/kle/Kle-abc/ke9/ke9-7721.htm].

In the spatio-temporal picture of the world, reproduced by art, including dramaturgy, there are images of biographical time (childhood, youth), historical, cosmic (the idea of ​​eternity and universal history), calendar, daily, as well as ideas about movement and immobility, about the relationship between past, present and future. Spatial pictures are represented by images of closed and open space, terrestrial and cosmic, really visible and imaginary, ideas about objectivity near and far. At the same time, any, as a rule, indicator, marker of this picture of the world in a work of art acquires a symbolic, iconic character. According to D.S. Likhachev, from epoch to epoch, as the understanding of the variability of the world becomes wider and deeper, the images of time are becoming increasingly important in literature: writers are more and more clearly aware of the “variety of forms of movement”, “mastering the world in its temporal dimensions”.

Artistic space can be dotted, linear, planar or volumetric. The second and third can also have a horizontal or vertical orientation. Linear space may or may not include the concept of directionality. In the presence of this sign (the image of a linear directed space, characterized by the relevance of the sign of length and the irrelevance of the sign of width, in art is often a road), linear space becomes convenient. artistic language for modeling temporal categories ("life path", "road" as a means of deploying character in time). To describe a point space, one has to turn to the concept of delimitation. The artistic space in a literary work is the continuum in which the characters are placed and the action takes place. Naive perception constantly pushes the reader to identify artistic and physical space.

However, the idea that an artistic space is always a model of some natural space is not always justified. The space in a work of art models different connections of the picture of the world: temporal, social, ethical, etc. This can happen because in one or another model of the world the category of space is intricately merged with certain concepts that exist in our picture of the world as separate or opposite. However, the reason may be elsewhere: in the artistic model of the world, “space” sometimes metaphorically assumes the expression of completely non-spatial relations in the modeling structure of the world.

Thus, the artistic space is a model of the world of a given author, expressed in the language of his spatial representations. At the same time, as often happens in other matters, this language, taken by itself, is much less individual and in more belongs to time, epoch, social and artistic groups than what the artist says in this language - than his individual model of the world.

In particular, artistic space can be the basis for interpreting the artistic world, since spatial relationships:

Can determine the nature of the "resistance of the environment inner world"(D.S. Likhachev);

They are one of the main ways of realizing the worldview of the characters, their relationships, the degree of freedom / lack of freedom;

They serve as one of the main ways of embodying the author's point of view.

Space and its properties are inseparable from the things that fill it. Therefore, the analysis of artistic space and the artistic world is closely connected with the analysis of the features of the material world that fills it.

Time is introduced into the work by a cinematic technique, that is, by dividing it into separate moments of rest. This is a common approach fine arts, and none of them can do without it. The reflection of time in the work is fragmentary due to the fact that continuously flowing homogeneous time is not able to give a rhythm. The latter involves pulsation, condensation and rarefaction, deceleration and acceleration, steps and stops. Consequently, the visual means that give rhythm must have a certain dissection, with some of its elements detaining attention and the eye, while others, intermediate, advancing one and the other from element to another. In other words, the lines that form the main scheme pictorial work, it is necessary to permeate or lower the alternating elements of rest and jump.

But it is not enough to decompose time into resting moments: it is necessary to link them into a single series, and this presupposes a certain internal unity of individual moments, which makes it possible and even necessary to move from element to element and, in this transition, to recognize in the new element something from an element that has just been abandoned. . Dismemberment is a condition for facilitated analysis; but the condition of facilitated synthesis is also required.

It can be said in another way: the organization of time is always and inevitably achieved by dismemberment, that is, by discontinuity. With the activity and synthetic nature of the mind, this discontinuity is given clearly and decisively. Then the synthesis itself, if it can only be within the power of the spectator, will be extremely full and sublime, it will be able to embrace great times and be full of movement.

The simplest and at the same time the most open method of cinematic analysis is achieved by a simple sequence of images whose spaces physically have nothing in common, are not coordinated with each other and are not even connected. In fact, this is the same cinematographic tape, but not cut in many places and therefore does not in the least condone the passive linking of images to each other.

An important characteristic of any art world is statics/dynamics. In its embodiment, the most important role belongs to space. Statics assumes time to be stopped, frozen, not turning forward, but statically oriented towards the past, that is real life cannot be in a closed space. Movement in a static world has the character of "mobile immobility". Dynamics is living, absorbing the present into the future. The continuation of life is possible only outside of isolation. And the character is perceived and evaluated in unity with his location, he, as it were, merges with space into an indivisible whole, becomes a part of it. The dynamics of a character depends on whether he has his own individual space, his own path relative to the world around him, or whether he remains, according to Lotman, the same type of environment around him. Kruglikov V.A. even makes it possible "to use the designations of individuality and personality as an analogue of space and time of a person." “Then it is appropriate to present individuality as a semantic image of the unfolding of the “I” in the space of a person. At the same time, individuality designates and indicates the location of personality in a person. In turn, a personality can be represented as a semantic image of the development of the “I” in a person’s time, as that subjective time in which movements, displacements and changes in individuality take place.<…>The absolute fullness of individuality is tragic for a person, as well as the absolute fullness of the personality ”[ Kruglikov V.A. Space and time of the "man of culture"//Culture, man and picture of the world. Ed. Arnoldov A.I., Kruglikov V.A. M., 1987].

V. Rudnev singles out three key parameters of the characteristics of artistic space: closedness/openness, straightness/curvature, greatness/smallness. They are explained in psychoanalytic terms of Otto Rank's theory of birth trauma: at birth, there is a painful transition from the closed, small, crooked space of the mother's womb to the huge straight and open space. outside world. In the pragmatics of space, the concepts of "here" and "there" play the most important role: they model the position of the speaker and the listener in relation to each other and in relation to the outside world. Rudnev proposes to distinguish here, there, nowhere with a capital and small letter:

“The word “here” with a small letter means the space that is in relation to the sensory reachability of the speaker, that is, the objects located “here” he can see, hear or touch.

The word "there" with a small letter means a space "located beyond the border or on the border of sensory reach from the side of the speaker. The boundary can be considered such a state of affairs when an object can be perceived by only one sense organ, for example, it can be seen, but not heard (it is located there, at the other end of the room) or, conversely, heard, but not seen (it is located there, behind partition).

The word "Here" capital letter means the space that unites the speaker with the object in question. It can be really very far. “He is here in America” (in this case, the speaker may be in California, and the one in question may be in Florida or Wisconsin).

An extremely interesting paradox is connected with the pragmatics of space. It is natural to assume that if an object is here, then it is not somewhere there (or nowhere). But if this logic is made modal, that is, the operator “maybe” is assigned to both parts of the statement, then the following will be obtained.

It is possible that the object is here, but perhaps not here. All plots connected with space are built on this paradox. For example, Hamlet in Shakespeare's tragedy kills Polonius by mistake. This error lurks in the structure of the pragmatic space. Hamlet thinks that there, behind the curtain, hides the king, whom he was going to kill. The space there is a place of uncertainty. But even here there can be a place of uncertainty, for example, when a double of the one you are waiting for comes to you, and you think that someone is here, but in fact he is somewhere there or he was completely killed (Nowhere) ”[ Rudnev V.P. Dictionary of culture of the twentieth century. - M.: Agraf, 1997. - 384 p.].

The idea of ​​the unity of time and space arose in connection with the advent of Einstein's theory of relativity. This idea is also confirmed by the fact that quite often words with a spatial meaning acquire temporal semantics, or have syncretic semantics, denoting both time and space. No object of reality exists only in space outside of time or only in time outside of space. Time is understood as the fourth dimension, the main difference of which from the first three (space) is that time is irreversible (anisotropic). Here is how Hans Reichenbach, a researcher of the philosophy of time of the 20th century, puts it:

1. The past does not return;

2. The past cannot be changed, but the future can;

3. It is impossible to have a reliable protocol about the future [ibid.].

The term chronotope, introduced by Einstein in his theory of relativity, was used by M.M. Bakhtin in the study of the novel [Bakhtin M.M. Epic and novel. St. Petersburg, 2000]. Chronotope (literally - time-space) - a significant relationship of temporal and spatial relations, artistically mastered in literature; the continuity of space and time, when time acts as the fourth dimension of space. Time condenses, becomes artistically visible; space is drawn into the movement of time, plot. Signs of time are revealed in space, and space is comprehended and measured by time. This intersection of rows and the merging of signs characterizes the artistic chronotope.

The chronotope determines the artistic unity of a literary work in its relation to reality. All temporal-spatial definitions in art and literature are inseparable from each other and are always emotionally-value-based.

The chronotope is the most important characteristic of an artistic image and at the same time a way of creating artistic reality. MM. Bakhtin writes that "every entry into the sphere of meanings takes place only through the gates of chronotopes." The chronotope, on the one hand, reflects the worldview of its era, on the other hand, the measure of the development of the author's self-awareness, the process of the emergence of points of view on space and time. As the most general, universal category of culture, artistic space-time is able to embody "the worldview of the era, the behavior of people, their consciousness, the rhythm of life, their attitude to things" (Gurevich). The chronotopic beginning of literary works, - Khalizev writes, - is capable of giving them a philosophical character, "bringing" the verbal fabric to the image of being as a whole, to the picture of the world [Khalizev V.E. Theory of Literature. M., 2005].

In the space-time organization of the works of the twentieth century, as well as modern literature side by side (and fighting) diverse, sometimes extreme, tendencies - an extraordinary expansion or, on the contrary, a concentrated compression of the boundaries of artistic reality, a tendency to increase conventionality or, conversely, to emphasized documentary chronological and topographic landmarks, isolation and openness, deployment and illegality. Among these trends, the following are the most obvious:

Striving for nameless or fictitious topography: City, instead of Kyiv, at Bulgakov (this throws a certain legendary reflection on historically specific events); the unmistakably recognizable but never named Cologne in H. Böll's prose; the story of Macondo in García Márquez's carnivalized national epic One Hundred Years of Solitude. It is significant, however, that artistic time-space here it requires real historical-geographical identification, or at least rapprochement, without which the work cannot be understood at all; widely used is the artistic time of a fairy tale or parable, closed, excluded from the historical account - "The Trial" by F. Kafka, "The Plague" by A. Camus, "Watt" by S. Beckett. The fabulous and parable “once”, “once”, equal to “always” and “whenever” corresponds to the eternal “conditions of human existence”, and is also used to ensure that the habitually modern coloring does not distract the reader in search of historical correlations, does not excite “ naive” question: “when did this happen?”; topography eludes identification, localization in the real world.

The presence of two different non-merged spaces in one artistic world: the real, that is, the physical, surrounding the heroes, and the “romantic”, created by the imagination of the hero himself, caused by the collision of the romantic ideal with the coming era of huckstering, put forward by bourgeois development. Moreover, the emphasis from the space of the outer world moves to the inner space of human consciousness. Under the internal space of the development of events is meant the memory of the character; the intermittent, reverse and direct course of plot time is motivated not by the author's initiative, but by the psychology of recall. Time "stratifies"; in extreme cases (for example, in M. Proust), the narrative “here and now” is left with the role of a frame or a material reason for the excitation of a memory that freely flies through space and time in pursuit of the desired moment of the experienced. In connection with the discovery of the compositional possibilities of "remembering", the original correlation in importance between moving and "attached to the place" characters often changes: if earlier the leading characters, passing a serious spiritual path, were, as a rule, mobile, and the extras merged with the everyday background into a stationary whole, now, on the contrary, the "remembering" hero, who belongs to central characters, being endowed with its own subjective sphere, the right to demonstrate its inner world (the position "at the window" of the heroine of the novel by V. Wolfe "A trip to the lighthouse"). This position allows one to compress one's own time of action into a few days and hours, while the time and space of an entire human life. The content of the character's memory here plays the same role as the collective knowledge of the legend in relation to ancient epic, - it frees from the exposition, the epilogue, and in general any explanatory moments provided by the initiative intervention of the author-narrator.

The character also begins to be thought of as a kind of space. G. Gachev writes that “Space and Time are not objective categories of being, but subjective forms of the human mind: a priori forms of our sensibility, that is, orientation outward, outward (Space) and inward (Time)” [Gachev G.D. European images of Space and Time//Culture, man and picture of the world. Ed. Arnoldov A.I., Kruglikov V.A. M., 1987]. Yampolsky writes that "the body forms its own space," which, for clarity, he calls "place." This gathering of spaces into a whole, according to Heidegger, is the property of a thing. A thing embodies a certain collective nature, a collective energy, and it creates a place. The collection of space introduces boundaries into it, boundaries give life to space. The place becomes a cast from a person, his mask, the boundary in which he himself acquires being, moves and changes. “The human body is also a thing. It also deforms the space around it, giving it the individuality of the place. The human body needs a localization, a place where it can place itself and find a home in which it can stay. As Edward Casey noted, “the body as such is an intermediary between my consciousness of a place and the place itself, moving me between places and introducing me into the intimate cracks of each given place [Yampolsky M. The Demon and the Labyrinth].

Thanks to the elimination of the author as a narrating person, wide possibilities opened up before montage, a kind of spatio-temporal mosaic, when different "theaters of action", panoramic and close-ups are compared without motivations and comments as a "documentary" face of reality itself.

In the twentieth century there were concepts of multidimensional time. They originated in the mainstream of absolute idealism, the British philosophy of the early twentieth century. 20th century culture was influenced by W. John Wilm Dunn's serial concept ("Experiment with Time"). Dunn analyzed the well-known phenomenon of prophetic dreams, when at one end of the planet a person dreams of an event that a year later happens quite in reality at the other end of the planet. Explaining this mysterious phenomenon, Dunn came to the conclusion that time has at least two dimensions for one person. In one dimension a person lives, and in another he observes. And this second dimension is space-like, it is possible to move through it into the past and into the future. This dimension manifests itself in altered states of consciousness, when the intellect does not put pressure on a person, that is, first of all, in a dream.

The phenomenon of neo-mythological consciousness at the beginning of the 20th century actualized the mythological cyclic model of time, in which not a single postulate of Reichenbach works. This cyclical time of the agrarian cult is familiar to everyone. After winter, spring comes, nature comes to life, and the cycle repeats itself. In the literature and philosophy of the twentieth century, the archaic myth of the eternal return becomes popular.

In contrast to this, the human consciousness of the late twentieth century, based on the idea of ​​linear time, which presupposes the existence of a certain end, just postulates the beginning of this end. And it turns out that time no longer moves in the usual direction; to understand what is happening, a person turns to the past. Baudrillard writes about it this way: “We use the concepts of the past, present and future, which are very conditional, when discussing the beginning and the end. However, today we find ourselves embroiled in a kind of perpetual process, which no longer has any final.

The end is also the ultimate goal, the goal that makes this or that movement purposeful. From now on, our history has neither purpose nor direction: it has lost them, lost them irrevocably. Staying on the other side of truth and error, on the other side of good and evil, we are no longer able to go back. Apparently, for any process there is a specific point of no return, after passing which it loses its finiteness forever. If completion is absent, then everything exists only by being dissolved in endless story, an endless crisis, an endless series of processes.

Having lost sight of the end, we desperately try to fix the beginning, this is our aspiration to find the origins. But these efforts are in vain: both anthropologists and paleontologists discover that all origins disappear in the depths of time, they are lost in the past, as infinite as the future.

We have already passed the point of no return and are fully involved in a non-stop process in which everything is immersed in an infinite vacuum and has lost its human dimension, and which deprives us of both the memory of the past, and the focus on the future, and the ability to integrate this future into the present. From now on, our world is a universe of abstract, incorporeal things that continue to live by inertia, which have become simulacra of themselves, but do not know death: infinite existence is guaranteed to them because they are only artificial formations.

And yet, we are still in the thrall of the illusion that certain processes will necessarily reveal their finiteness, and with it their direction, will allow us to retrospectively establish their origins, and as a result, we will be able to comprehend the movement of interest to us using the concepts of cause. and consequences.

The absence of an end creates a situation in which it is difficult to get rid of the impression that all the information we receive does not contain anything new, that everything we are told about has already happened. Since now there is no completion, no ultimate goal, since humanity has gained immortality, the subject has ceased to understand what he is. And this acquired immortality is the last fantasy born of our technologies” [Baudrillard Jean Paroli from fragment to fragment Ekaterinburg, 2006] .

It should be added that the past is available only in the form of memories, dreams. This is an ongoing attempt to embody once again what has already been, what has already happened once and should not happen again. In the center - the fate of a man who found himself "at the end of time". Often used in a work of art is the motive of expectation: the hope for a miracle, or longing for a better life, or the expectation of trouble, a premonition of disaster.

In Deja Loer's play "Olga's Room" there is a phrase that illustrates this tendency to turn to the past: "Only if I can reproduce the past with absolute accuracy, can I see the future."

The concept of running backwards time comes into contact with the same idea. “Time introduces a completely understandable metaphysical confusion: it appears together with a person, but precedes eternity. Another obscurity, no less important and no less expressive, prevents us from determining the direction of time. They say that it flows from the past into the future: but the opposite is no less logical, as the Spanish poet Miguel de Unamuno wrote about ”(Borges). Unamuno does not mean a simple countdown, time here is a metaphor for a person. Dying, a person begins to consistently lose what he managed to do and survive, all his experience, he unwinds like a ball to a state of non-existence.

Artistic space and time are an integral property of any work of art, including music, literature, theater, etc. Literary chronotopes are primarily plot meaning, are the organizational centers of the main events described by the author. The pictorial significance of chronotopes is also undoubted, since plot events are concretized in them, and time and space acquire a sensually visual character. Genre and genre varieties determined by the chronotope. All temporal-spatial definitions in literature are inseparable from each other and emotionally colored.

Artistic time is the time that is reproduced and depicted in a literary work. Artistic time, in contrast to objectively given time, uses the variety of subjective perception of time. A person's sense of time is subjective. It can “stretch”, “run”, “fly”, “stop”. Artistic time makes this subjective perception of time one of the forms of depicting reality. However, objective time is also used at the same time. Time in fiction is perceived due to the connection of events - causal or associative. Events in the plot precede and follow each other, line up in a complex series, and thanks to this, the reader is able to notice time in a work of art, even if it does not say anything about time. Artistic time can be characterized as follows: static or dynamic; real - unreal; the speed of the movement of time; perspective - retrospective - cyclical; past - present - future (in what time are the characters and action concentrated). In literature, the leading principle is time.

Art space is one of critical components works. Its role in the text is not limited to determining the place where the event occurs; storylines, the actors move. Artistic space, like time, is a special language for the moral evaluation of characters. The behavior of the characters is related to the space in which they are located. The space can be closed (limited) - open; real (recognizable, similar to reality) - unreal; own (the hero was born and raised here, feels comfortable in it, adequate to the space) - alien (the hero is an outside observer, abandoned to a foreign land, cannot find himself); empty (minimum of objects) - filled. It can be dynamic, full of diverse movement, and static, “immobile”, filled with things. When movement in space becomes directed, one of the most important spatial forms appears - the road, which can become a spatial dominant that organizes the entire text. The motif of the road is semantically ambiguous: the road can be a specific reality of the depicted space, it can symbolize the path of the character's internal development, his fate; through the motif of the road, the idea of ​​the path of a people or an entire country can be expressed. Space can be built horizontally or vertically (emphasis on objects stretching up or on objects spreading out). In addition, you should look at what is located in the center of this space and what is on the periphery, what geographical objects are listed in the story, what they are called (real names, fictitious names, proper names or common nouns in the role of proper ones).

Each writer comprehends time and space in his own way, endowing them with their own characteristics, reflecting the worldview of the author. As a result, the artistic space created by the writer is unlike any other artistic space and time, much less the real one.

So in the works of I. A. Bunin (cycle " Dark alleys”), the life of the heroes takes place in two non-overlapping chronotopes. On the one hand, the reader unfolds the space of everyday life, rain, corroding melancholy, in which time moves unbearably slowly. Only a tiny part of the hero's biography (one day, one night, a week, a month) takes place in a different space, bright, saturated with emotions, meaning, sun, light and, most importantly, love. In this case, the action takes place in the Caucasus or in a noble estate, under the romantic vaults of “dark alleys”.

An important property of literary time and space is their discreteness, i.e. discontinuity. With regard to time, this is especially important, since literature is able not to reproduce the entire flow of time, but to select the most significant fragments from it, indicating gaps. Such temporal discreteness served as a powerful means of dynamization.

The nature of the conventionality of time and space depends to a great extent on the type of literature. Conventionality is maximum in lyrics, as it is closer to the expressive arts. There may not be space here. At the same time, lyrics can reproduce the objective world and its spatial realities. With the predominance of the grammatical present in the lyrics, it is characterized by the interaction of the present and the past (elegy), past, present and future (to Chaadaev). The very category of time can be the leitmotif of a poem. In drama, the conventionality of time and space is set mainly for the theatre. That is, all actions, speeches, inner speech of actors are closed in time and space. Against the backdrop of drama, the epic has broader possibilities. Transitions from one time to another, spatial movements occur due to the narrator. The narrator can compress or stretch time.

By features artistic convention time and space in literature can be divided into abstract and concrete. An abstract space is a space that can be perceived as universal. The concrete not only binds the depicted world to certain topographical realities, but also actively influences the essence of the depicted. There is no impassable boundary between concrete and abstract spaces. Abstract space draws details from reality. The concepts of abstract and concrete spaces can serve as guidelines for typology. The corresponding properties of time are usually associated with the type of space. The form of concretization is thin. time are most often the binding of the action to historical realities and the designation of cyclic time, the time of the year, the day. In most cases, the worst time is shorter than the real time. This is the law of "poetic economy". However, there is an important exception associated with the depiction of psychological processes and the subjective time of a character or a lyrical hero. Experiences and thoughts flow faster than the flow of speech, which forms the basis of literary imagery, moves. In literature, there are complex relationships between the real and the thin. time. real time in general can be equal to zero, for example in descriptions. Such time is eventless. But the time of events is not uniform. In one case, literature records events and actions that significantly change a person. This is plot or plot time. In another case, literature paints a picture of a stable being, repeating itself from day to day. This type of time is called chronicle-everyday. The ratio of eventless, eventful and chronicle-everyday time creates the tempo organization of the art. the time of the work. Completion and incompleteness are important for the analysis. It is also worth mentioning the types of organization of artistic time: chronicle, adventurous, biographical, etc.

Bakhtin in his heresy singled out chronotopes:

Meetings.

Roads. On the road ("high road"), the spatial and temporal paths of the most diverse people - representatives of all classes, states, religions, nationalities, ages - intersect at one temporal and spatial point. This is the point of tying and the place where events take place. The road is especially beneficial for depicting an event driven by chance (but not only for such). (remember Pugachev's meeting with Grinev in "Kap.dochka"). Common features chronotope in different types novels: the road passes through one's own country, not in an exotic foreign world; reveals and shows the socio-historical diversity of this home country(therefore, if one can talk about exotic here, then only about "social exotic" - "slums", "scum", thieves' worlds). In the latter function, the "road" was also used in journalistic travels of the 18th century ("Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" by Radishchev). This feature of the “road” distinguishes the listed novel varieties from another line of the wandering novel, represented by the ancient travel novel, the Greek sophistic novel, the 17th-century baroque novel. A function similar to the road in these novels is played by a "foreign world", separated from its own country by sea and distance.

Castle. By the end of the XVIII century in England - a new territory for the accomplishment of novel events - the "castle". The castle is saturated with the time of the historical past. The castle is the place of life of the rulers of the feudal era (hence, the historical figures of the past), traces of centuries and generations were deposited in it in a visible form in various parts of its structure, in the setting, in weapons, in the specific human relations of dynastic succession. This creates a specific plot of the castle, deployed in Gothic novels.

Living room-salon. From the point of view of the plot and composition, meetings take place here (not random), plots of intrigue are created, denouements are often made, dialogues take place that acquire exceptional significance in the novel, the characters, “ideas” and “passions” of the characters are revealed. Here - the interweaving of historical and public-public with private and even purely private, alcove, the interweaving of private-everyday intrigue with political and financial, state secrets with an alcove secret, a historical series with everyday and biographical. Here, visually visible signs of both historical time and biographical and everyday time are condensed, condensed, and at the same time they are closely intertwined with each other, merged into single signs of the era. The era becomes visually visible and plot-visible.

Provincial town. It has several varieties, including a very important one - idyllic. Flaubert's kind of town is a place of cyclic household time. There are no events here, but only repeated "occurrences". Day after day, the same everyday actions, the same topics of conversation, the same words, etc. are repeated. Time here is eventless and therefore seems to have almost stopped.

Threshold. This is a chronotope of crisis and life turning point. For Dostoevsky, for example, the threshold and the adjacent chronotopes of the stairs, the entrance hall and the corridor, as well as the chronotopes of streets and squares that continue them, are the main places of action in his works, places where events of crises, falls, resurrections, renewals, insights, decisions take place. that define a person's entire life. Time in this chronotope, in essence, is an instant, as if having no duration and falling out of the normal flow of biographical time. These decisive moments are included in Dostoevsky's large, all-encompassing chronotopes of mystery and carnival time. These times adjoin in a peculiar way, intersect and intertwine in Dostoevsky's work, just as they coexisted for many centuries on the people's squares of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (essentially the same, but in slightly different forms - on the ancient squares of Greece and Rome). In Dostoevsky, on the streets and in mass scenes inside houses (mainly in living rooms), the ancient carnival-mystery square seems to come to life and shine through. This, of course, does not exhaust Dostoevsky's chronotopes: they are complex and diverse, as are the traditions that are renewed in them.

Unlike Dostoevsky, in the works of L. N. Tolstoy the main chronotope is biographical time, flowing in the interior spaces of noble houses and estates. The renewal of Pierre Bezukhov was also lengthy and gradual, quite biographical. The word "suddenly" is rare in Tolstoy and never introduces any significant event. After biographical time and space, the chronotope of nature, the family-idyllic chronotope, and even the chronotope of the labor idyll (when depicting peasant labor) are of significant importance for Tolstoy.

The chronotope as the primary materialization of time in space is the center of pictorial concretization, embodiment for the entire novel. All the abstract elements of the novel - philosophical and social generalizations, ideas, analyzes of causes and effects, etc. - gravitate towards the chronotope and through it are filled with flesh and blood, are attached to artistic imagery. This is the pictorial meaning of the chronotope.

The chronotopes we have considered have a genre-typical character; they underlie certain varieties of the novel genre, which has developed and developed over the centuries.

The principle of the chronotopicity of the artistic and literary image was first clearly revealed by Lessing in his Laocoon. It establishes the temporary nature of the artistic and literary image. Everything that is static-spatial should not be statically described, but should be involved in the time series of the events depicted and the story-image itself. So, in the famous example of Lessing, the beauty of Helen is not described by Homer, but her effect on the Trojan elders is shown, and this action is revealed in a number of movements, deeds of the elders. Beauty is involved in the chain of depicted events and at the same time is not the subject of a static description, but the subject of a dynamic story.

Between depicting the real world and the world depicted in the work, there is a sharp and fundamental boundary. It is impossible to mix, as it has been done and is still sometimes done, the depicted world with the depicting world (naive realism), the author - the creator of the work with the author-man (naive biographism), recreating and renewing the listener-reader of different (and many) eras with passive listener-reader of his own time (dogmatism of understanding and evaluation).

We can also say this: we have two events in front of us - the event about which the work is told, and the event of the story itself (in this latter we ourselves participate as listeners-readers); these events take place in different times(different and in duration) and in different places, and at the same time they are inextricably united in a single, but complex event, which we can designate as a work in its eventful completeness, including here both its external material reality and its text, and the world depicted in it, and the author-creator, and the listener-reader. At the same time, we perceive this fullness in its integrity and inseparability, but at the same time we understand the entire difference of its constituent moments. The author-creator moves freely in his time; he can begin his story from the end, from the middle, and from any moment of the events depicted, without destroying the objective course of time in the depicted event. Here the difference between depicted and depicted time is clearly manifested.

10. Simple and detailed comparison (short and irrelevant)).
COMPARISON Comparison is a figurative allegory in which the similarity between two phenomena of life is established. Comparison is an important figurative and expressive language tool. There are two images: the main one, in which main point statements and auxiliary, attached to the union "as" and others. Comparison is widely used in artistic speech. Reveals similarities, parallels, correspondences between the original phenomena. Comparison fixes different associations that arise in the writer. Comparison performs pictorial and expressive functions or combines both of them. The form of comparison is the combination of two of its members with the help of unions "as", "as if", "like", "as if", etc. There is also an allied comparison ("In iron armor, a samovar // Noises as a house general ..." N.A. Zabolotsky).

11. The concept of the literary process (I have some kind of heresy, but in response to this question, you can blather everything: from the origin of literature from mythology to trends and modern genres)
The literary process is the totality of all works that appear at this time.

Factors that limit it:

On the presentation of literature inside literary process depends on when a particular book comes out.

The literary process does not exist outside of magazines, newspapers, and other printed publications. ("Young guard", " New world" etc.)

The literary process is associated with criticism of published works. Oral criticism also has a significant effect on L.P.

"Liberal terror" was the name given to criticism in the early 18th century. Literary associations are writers who consider themselves close on any issues. They act as a certain group, conquering part of the literary process. Literature is, as it were, "divided" between them. They issue manifestos expressing the general sentiments of a particular group. Manifestos appear at the moment of formation literary group. For literature of the early 20th century. manifestos are uncharacteristic (symbolists first created, and then wrote manifestos). The manifesto allows you to look at the future activities of the group, immediately determine what it stands out for. Typically, the manifest (in classic version- anticipating the activity of the group) turns out to be paler than literary movement which he represents.

literary process.

With the help of artistic speech in literary works people's speech activity is widely and specifically reproduced. A person in a verbal image acts as a “speech carrier”. This applies, first of all, to lyrical heroes, actors dramatic works and storytellers epic works. Speech in fiction acts as the most important subject of the image. Literature not only designates life phenomena with words, but also reproduces speech activity itself. Using speech as the subject of the image, the writer overcomes the schematic nature of verbal pictures that are associated with their “immateriality”. Without speech, people's thinking cannot be fully realized. Therefore, literature is the only art that freely and widely masters human thought. Thinking processes are the focus mental life people, form out of intense action. Literature differs qualitatively from other forms of art in the ways and means of comprehending the emotional world. Literature uses a direct depiction of mental processes with the help of the author's characteristics and the statements of the characters themselves. Literature as an art form has a kind of universality. With the help of speech, you can reproduce any aspect of reality; the visual possibilities of the verbal truly have no limits. Literature most fully embodies the cognitive beginning of artistic activity. Hegel called literature "universal art". But the visual and cognitive possibilities of literature were especially widely realized in the 19th century, when the realistic method became the leading method in the art of Russia and Western European countries. Pushkin, Gogol, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy artistically reflected the life of their country and era with such a degree of completeness that is inaccessible to any other kind of art. Unique quality fiction is also its pronounced, open problematic nature. It is not surprising that in the area literary creativity, the most intellectual and problematic, trends in art are formed: classicism, sentimentalism, etc.