Where are the Etruscans, and what do the Russians have to do with it? Etruscans - Russian historical library Etruscan period

Chapter 2. Origin of the Etruscan people.

The Etruscans have always been considered mysterious people who had little in common with the tribes around him. It is quite natural that both in ancient times and now they tried to find out where it came from. This is a subtle and complex problem, and to this day has not received a generally accepted solution. How are things nowadays? To answer the question, it is important to recall the opinions of ancient authors on this matter, as well as subsequent judgments of modern scientists. In this way we will find out whether the facts known to us allow us to come to any reasonable decision.

In ancient times, there was almost unanimous opinion on this issue. It was based on a story Herodotus, the first great Greek historian, about the adventures that brought the Tyrrhenians to the land of Tuscany. Here's what he writes:

“They say that during the reign of Atis, the son of Man, a great famine engulfed all of Lydia. For some time the Lydians tried to lead a normal life; but, since the hunger did not stop, they tried to come up with something: some suggested one thing, others another. They say that it was then that the game of dice, the game of grandmothers, ball games and others were invented, but not the game of checkers, since the Lydians do not claim to have invented it. And this is how these inventions helped them fight hunger: out of every two days, one day was entirely devoted to the game in order to forget about the search for food. The next day people stopped playing and ate. They lived like this for eighteen years.

But since the disaster not only did not subside, but, on the contrary, intensified, the king divided the Lydian people into two parts; one of them, by lot, had to stay, the second - to leave the country. The king led the group that was supposed to remain, and put his son Tyrrhenus at the head of the second group. Those Lydians, who were ordered by lot to leave the country, went to Smyrna, built ships, loaded them with all their belongings and sailed in search of lands and means of subsistence. After exploring the shores of many countries, they finally reached the land of the Umbrians. There they founded cities where they live to this day. But they stopped being called Lydians, taking their name from the name of the king who led them. Thus they received the name Tyrrhenians."

We do know that the inhabitants of Tuscia, who were called Tuscians or Etruscans by the Romans (hence the current name of Tuscany), were known to the Greeks as Tyrrhenians. This, in turn, is where the name came from Tyrrhenian Sea, on the banks of which the Etruscans built their cities. Thus, Herodotus paints a picture of the migration of the eastern people, and in his presentation the Etruscans turn out to be the same Lydians, who, according to the chronology of Greek historians, left their country quite late - in the 13th century BC. e. and settled on the shores of Italy.

Consequently, the entire Etruscan civilization comes directly from the Asia Minor plateau. Herodotus wrote his work in the middle of the 5th century. BC e. Almost all Greek and Roman historians accepted his point of view. Virgil, Ovid and Horace in their poems often call the Etruscans Lydians. According to Tacitus (Annals, IV, 55), during the Roman Empire Lydian city of Sardis retained the memory of his distant Etruscan origin; The Lydians even then considered themselves brothers of the Etruscans. Seneca cites the Etruscans as an example of the migration of an entire people and writes: “Tuscos Asia sibi vindicat” - “Asia believes that it gave birth to Tusks.”

So, the classical authors did not doubt the truth of the ancient legends, which, as far as we know, were first announced by Herodotus. However, the Greek theorist Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who lived in Rome under Augustus, declared that he could not adhere to this opinion. In his first work on Roman history he writes the following: “I don’t think the Tyrrhenians came from Lydia. Their language is different from that of the Lydians; and they cannot be said to have retained any other features which bore traces of descent from their supposed homeland. They worship different gods than the Lydians; they have different laws, and, from this point of view at least, they differ more from the Lydians than even from the Pelasgians. Thus, it seems to me that those who claim that the Etruscans are an indigenous people, and not those who came from overseas, are right; in my opinion, this follows from the fact that they are a very ancient people, who are unlike any other people in their language or customs.”

Thus, already in ancient times there were two opposing opinions about the origin of the Etruscans. In modern times, the debate flared up again. Some scientists followed Nicola Frere, who at the end of the 18th century was the permanent secretary of the Academy of Inscriptions and Fine Letters, proposed a third solution in addition to the two already existing. According to him, the Etruscans, like other Italic peoples, came from the north; the Etruscans had Indo-European roots and were part of one of the waves of invaders that successively hit the peninsula starting from 2000 BC e. At present, this thesis, although not completely refuted, has very few adherents. Nor does it stand up to the test of facts. Therefore, we must discard it immediately to avoid unnecessary complicating the problem.

This Nordic hypothesis is based on an imaginary connection between the name retov, or the Raetians, with whom Drusus, son of Augustus, fought, and named "Rasena", which, according to classical authors, called themselves Etruscans. The presence of the Rhaetians supposedly represents historical evidence that in ancient times the Etruscans came from the north and crossed the Alps. And this opinion seems to be confirmed by Tita Livia, which notes: "Even the Alpine tribes, especially the Rhaetians, are of the same origin as the Etruscans. The very nature of their country turned the Rhaetians into a savage state, so that they retained nothing of their ancient ancestral home, with the exception of talking, and even then in an extremely distorted form" ( V, 33, II). Finally, in the areas where the Rhaetians lived, inscriptions in a language similar to Etruscan were actually found.

In fact, we have before us an example of how false conclusions are drawn from true facts. The presence of the Etruscans in Raetia is a reality. But this happened relatively recently and has nothing to do with the hypothetical transition of the Etruscans through the Alpine valleys. Only in the 4th century BC. e., when, due to the Celtic invasion, the Etruscans had to leave the Padan plain, they found refuge in the Alpine foothills. Libya, if you carefully analyze his text, does not mean anything else, and the inscriptions of the Etruscan type found in Raetia, created no earlier III century BC e., are perfectly explained precisely by this movement of Etruscan refugees to the north.

The thesis about the eastern origin of the Etruscans has much more grounds. It seems to be unequivocally supported by a lot of data linguistics and archaeology. Many features of the Etruscan civilization are very reminiscent of what we know about the civilizations of ancient Asia Minor. Although the various Asian motifs in Etruscan religion and art can ultimately be explained coincidence, supporters of this thesis believe that the eastern features of the Etruscan civilization are too numerous and too noticeable; therefore, they point out, the hypothesis of pure coincidence should be ruled out.

The self-name of the Etruscans is “rasena” - can be found in numerous very similar forms in various dialects of Asia Minor. Hellenized name "Tyrrhenians" or "Tyrsenians" also apparently originating from the Anatolian Plateau. This is an adjective, most likely formed from the word "tirrha" or "tirra". We know about a place in Lydia, which was exactly called Tirra. There is a temptation to see a relationship between the Etruscan and Lydian words and to attribute some meaning to this curious parallel. Based on the Latin word turris – “tower”- undoubtedly derived from this root, then the name "Tyrrhenians" literally means "people of the citadel". The root is very common in the Etruscan language. Enough to remember Tarchona, brother or son of Tyrrhenus, who founded Tarquinia and dodecapolis - a league of twelve Etruscan cities. Or Tarquinia itself, the sacred city of ancient Etruria (Tuscia). However, names derived from the root tarch, often found in Asia Minor. There they were given to gods or rulers.

In 1885 two young scientists French school in Athens, Cousin and Dürrbak made a major discovery on the island of Lemnos in the Aegean Sea. Not far from the village of Kaminia, they found a funeral stele with decorations and inscriptions. We see it depicted in profile face of a warrior with a spear and two carved texts: one around the warrior’s head, the other on the side of the stele. This monument, a creation of local archaic art, was created no later 7th century BC uh., that is, much earlier than the Greeks conquered the island (510 BC). The inscriptions are in Greek letters, but The language is not Greek. Very quickly the similarity of this language with the language of the Etruscans was noticed. Here and there the same endings; it seems that word formation is carried out according to same rules. Thus, on the island of Lemnos in the 7th century BC. e. spoke a language similar to Etruscan. And the stele is not the only evidence. Shortly before World War II, researchers of the Italian school found other fragments of inscriptions on the island in the same language - apparently, in the language used by the inhabitants of the island before its conquest by Themistocles.

If the Tyrrhenians came from Anatolia, they could well have settled on such Aegean islands, like Lemnos, leaving small communities there. The appearance of the stela from Caminia, more or less coinciding in time with the birth of the Etruscan civilization, is quite understandable from the standpoint of the hypothesis about the eastern origin of the Etruscans.

Rice. 5. Funerary stele from Kaminia on the island of Lemnos. National Museum, Athens.

Trying to solve this problem, researchers turned to anthropology. A systematic study of some forty skulls found in Etruscan graves by the Italian anthropologist Sergi was inconclusive and did not reveal any significant difference between the data from Etruria and from other areas of Italy. Sir Gavin de Vere recently came up with the idea of using genetic evidence based on blood groups. The proportion in which There are four blood types, more or less constant for every nation. Consequently, by studying blood groups, one can learn about the origin and degree of kinship of peoples who are not too separated in time.

Because Tuscany's population remained relatively stable over the centuries, modern Tuscans must save genes, inherited from the Etruscans (haplogroup of the Etruscans G2a3a and G2a3b discovered in Europe; haplogroup G2a3b went to Europe through Starchevo and further through the archaeological culture of Linear Band Pottery, was discovered by archaeologists in the center of Germany)

On maps showing the distribution of blood groups in modern Italy, in the center of the peninsula there is an area with clear differences from the rest of the Italian population and with similarities to the eastern peoples. The results of these studies allow us to evaluate possible signs of the eastern origin of the Etruscans. However, great caution should be exercised, since this phenomenon can be explained by the influence of completely different factors.

It would take too much space to list all the Etruscan customs, religious ideas and artistic techniques that are often and rightly associated with the East. We will mention only the most noticeable facts. Etruscan women, as in, occupied a privileged position that had nothing in common with the humiliated and subordinate position of the Greek (and Eastern) woman. But we observe such a sign of civilization V social structure Crete and Mycenae. There, as in Etruria, women are present at plays, performances and games, without remaining, as in Greece, recluses in the quiet chambers of the female half.

We see Etruscan women at a feast next to their husbands: Etruscan frescoes often depict a woman reclining next to the owner of the house at the banquet table. As a result of this custom, the Greeks and then the Romans groundlessly accused Etruscan women of immorality. The inscriptions provide further confirmation of the apparent equality of the Etruscan woman: often the person dedicating the inscription mentions the name of the mother along with the name of the father, or even without it. We have evidence of the spread of such matronymy in Anatolia, especially in Lydia. Perhaps this shows traces of ancient matriarchy.

Rice. 6. A married couple at a funeral feast. From an engraving by Byres in the Hypogea of Tarquinia, part IV, illus. 8.

In the field of art and religion there are even more points of agreement. Unlike the Greeks and Romans, like many eastern peoples, the Etruscans professed a revealed religion, whose commandments were jealously guarded in holy books. The supreme gods of the Etruscans were a trinity, which was worshiped in the triple temples. This Tinia, Uni and Menerva, whom the Romans, in turn, began to honor under the names of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva.

Trinity cult, which was worshiped in three-walled sanctuaries - each dedicated to one of the three gods - is also present in the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization. Etruscan tombs are often surrounded cippi - low pillars with or without decorations symbolizing the divine presence. They are carved from local stone - either nenfro or volcanic rocks - diorite or basalt. This is reminiscent of the Asia Minor cult, in which the deity is often represented in the form of a stone or column. Egg-shaped Etruscan columns They also depict the deceased in schematic and symbolic form as a deified hero.

Even the ancients were amazed by the unhealthy and manic attitude of the Etruscans towards the deities, their constant desire to know the future by studying the omens sent to people by the gods. Such destructive religiosity, so great interest in divination inevitably brings to mind similar sentiments among many eastern peoples. Later we will take a closer look at the technique of prediction, which was unusually common among the Etruscans.

Etruscan priests - haruspices- other ancient peoples had a reputation as masters in the art of divination. They excelled in interpreting signs and wonders. The analytical method of the haruspices has always been based on incredibly intricate casuistry. The clap of thunder so strongly associated with the Tuscan skies, where terrible and severe thunderstorms, was the subject of research that amazes us with its detailed and systematic nature. The Haruspices, according to the ancients, had no equal in the art of fulgurature. However, some eastern peoples, for example, Babylonians, long before them they tried to interpret thunderstorms in order to guess the will of the gods. They reached us babylonian texts, which explain the meaning of thunder depending on the corresponding day of the year. They have no doubt similarity with the Etruscan text, which is preserved in the Greek translation of John of Lydia and is nothing more than thunderstorm calendar.

The favorite pastime of the haruspices was study of the liver and entrails of animals sacrificed to the gods; it seems that the very name of the haruspex comes from this rite. We see on Etruscan bas-reliefs and mirrors images of priests performing this strange operation, which also reminds us of ancient Assyro-Babylonian customs. Of course, this method of divination was known and used in other countries. For example, there is ample evidence that it was practiced later in Greece. But nowhere else was it given such colossal importance as in some countries of the ancient East and in Tuscia. During modern excavations in Asia Minor and Babylonia, many terracotta liver models. They are carved with prophecies based on the configuration of the organs depicted. Similar objects were found in Etruscan land. The most famous of them is bronze liver discovered in the vicinity of Piacenza in 1877 On the outside it is divided into several parts bearing names of Tus gods. These deities occupy specific areas in the sky, which correspond to clearly defined fragments of the victim's liver. Which god sent the sign was determined by which part of the liver the sign was found on; in the same way, lightning was sent by the god who owned the part of the sky from which it struck. Thus, the Etruscans, and before them the Babylonians, saw a parallelism between the liver of a sacrificial animal and the world as a whole: the first was just a microcosm, reproducing on a tiny scale the structure of the world.

In the field of art, connections with the East are indicated by the outlines of some objects and specific methods of processing gold and silver. Etruscan objects made of gold and silver are made with great skill in the 7th century BC e. The treasures from the Regolini-Galassi tomb are striking in their perfection and technical ingenuity. Admiring them, we involuntarily recall the fine technique of jewelers in the Middle East.

It is clear that such a coincidence is good known facts only reinforces the conviction of supporters of the “Eastern hypothesis”. And yet, many scientists are inclined to accept the idea of the indigenous origin of the Etruscans, which was put forward almost two thousand years ago Dionysius of Halicarnassus. They don't deny by any means kinship connecting Etruria and the East, but they explain it differently.

Before the Indo-European invasion, the Mediterranean region was inhabited by ancient peoples linked by numerous ties of kinship. Invaders who came from the north between 2000 and 1000 BC. e., destroyed almost all of these tribes. But here and there there inevitably remained some elements that survived the general cataclysm. Etruscans, supporters of this hypothesis tell us, represent exactly one of these islands of ancient civilization; they survived the disaster, which explains the Mediterranean features of this civilization. In this way one can explain the undeniable kinship of the Etruscan language with some pre-Hellenic idioms of Asia Minor and the Aegean basin, such as those depicted on the Lemnos stele.

This is a very attractive point of view, held by a number of linguists– students of the Italian researcher Trombetti. Two recently published books Massimo Pallottino and Franz Altheim provide scientific justification for this thesis. Both authors emphasize one essential point of their argument. In their opinion, up until now, the problem has been formulated extremely incorrectly. We always wonder where did the Etruscans come from? as if this is the most natural thing when an entire people suddenly appears in some region, which later becomes its homeland. The Etruscans are known to us only from the Apennine Peninsula (and the islands of the Aegean Sea?); actually unfolds here their whole story. Then why should we ask a purely academic question about their origin? A historian should rather be interested in how the Etruscan nation and its civilizations were formed. To solve this problem, he it is not necessary to postulate the eastern origin of the Etruscans, which cannot be proven and which is in any case highly unlikely.

Herodotus's story should be perceived as a variety of those numerous legends to which ancient authors turn when telling about the origin of peoples. The Etruscans apparently came from a mixture of ethnic elements of different origins; It is from such a mixture that an ethnos, a nation with clearly defined characteristics and physical features, emerges. Thus the Etruscans again become what they never ceased to be—purely Italian phenomenon. Therefore, we can, without regret, part with the hypothesis of their migration from another country, the source of which in any case requires an extremely careful attitude.

This is the essence of the new teaching, which denies the semi-historical, semi-legendary tradition and strangely repeats the conclusions Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the first to try to refute this tradition. Thus, people with a reputation in modern Etruscology declared themselves to be supporters of autochthony, or at least partial autochthony of the Etruscan people, denying the traditional hypothesis, although it continues to be supported by a significant number of researchers.

We must admit that it is not easy to make a choice in favor of one theory or another. Attempts by Altheim and Pallottino to prove the Italic origin of the Etruscans rest on a number of observations that are certainly true and stand up to scrutiny, whatever we may think of their idea as a whole. Of course, it is much more important to strictly monitor the historical evolution of the Etruscan people on Tuscan soil, rather than waste energy trying to figure out where it came from. In any case, there is no doubt the diversity of the roots of the Etruscan people. It was born from the fusion of different ethnic elements, and we must abandon the naive idea of a people who suddenly, as if by a miracle, appears on Italian soil. Even if there were migrations and invasions of conquerors from the east, they may have been rather small groups who mixed with the Italic tribes who had long lived between the Arno and the Tiber.

So the question is whether we should stick to the idea of sailors from Anatolia who arrived in the Mediterranean and looked for a place on the shores of Italy where they could live.

It seems to us that from such a clearly defined point of view, the legend about the newcomers from the East retains its significance. Only it makes it possible to explain the emergence at a specific point in time of a civilization that is largely completely new, but possessing many features that connect the Etruscans with the Cretan-Mycenaean and Middle Eastern world. If theory of autochthony brought to its logical conclusion, it will be difficult to explain the unexpected emergence of crafts and arts, as well as religious ideas and rituals that were previously unknown on Tuscan soil. It has been suggested that there was some kind of awakening of the ancient Mediterranean peoples - an awakening caused by the development of maritime and trade links between the Eastern and Western Mediterranean at the beginning of the 7th century BC. e. But such an argument is unable to explain what caused such a rapid development of culture in Italy, whose civilization was at a backward and in many respects primitive stage.

Of course the migration cannot be dated, as Herodotus claims, to 1500-1000. BC e. Italy enters history at a later stage. Throughout the peninsula bronze age lasted until about 800 BC. e. And only by the 8th century. BC e. we can attribute two events that were of the greatest importance for the history of ancient Italy, and, accordingly, the entire Western world - the arrival of the first Greek colonists on the southern shores of the peninsula and to Sicily approx. 750 BC e. and the first flowering of Etruscan civilization in Tuscany, which, according to indisputable archaeological data, occurred no earlier than 700 BC. e.

Thus, in Central and Southern Italy two great centers of civilization developed more or less simultaneously, and both contributed to the awakening of the peninsula from its long slumber. Previously, there was nothing comparable to the brilliant civilizations of the Middle East - Egyptian and Babylonian. This awakening is marked the beginning of Etruscan history, as well as the arrival of the Hellenes. Tracing the fate of Tuscia, we see the introduction of Italy to the history of mankind.

Ramon Block Etruscans. Predictors of the future.
| | Chapter 3.

Their borders converged in the area where Rome arose.

The Etruscans, who were the most powerful tribe in Italy before the Romans, lived in a country rich in olives and grapes in the valleys and slopes of the Apennines, along the coast of this region, and from the mouth of the Padus to the northern bank of the Tiber. They early formed a federation consisting of twelve independent cities (the Etruscan Twelve Cities). These Etruscan cities were: in the north-west Cortona, Arretium, Clusium and Perusia (near Lake Trasimene); in the southeast of Volaterra, Vetulonia (which had its harbor at Telamon), Rusella and Volsinia; in the south of Tarquinia, Caere (Agilla), Veii, Faleria (near Mount Sorakte, rising alone on the plain). At first, all these states had kings, but early (even before the 4th century) the kingship was abolished, and all spiritual and temporal power began to belong to the aristocracy. There was no union government in the Etruscan federation. During the war, some cities probably entered into alliances with each other by voluntary agreement.

Etruria and the conquests of the Etruscans in the VIII-VI centuries. BC

The legend of Demaratus indicates that the Etruscan federation from an early time was in relations with the commercial and industrial city of Corinth. She says that the Corinthian Demaratus settled in Tarquinia, that the painter Clephant and the sculptors Euheir (“skillful-handed”) and Eugram (“skillful draftsman”) came with him, that he brought the alphabet to Tarquinia. Written monuments and drawings that have come down to us from the Etruscans also show Greek influence on this wonderful people. Their language shows no trace of kinship with either Greek or Italic; We have not yet learned to understand what is written on it, but we reliably see that it did not belong to the Indo-Germanic family. The Etruscans borrowed the alphabet from the Greeks, no doubt in very ancient times, and not through the Latins, but directly from the Greek colonists of Southern Italy, as can be seen from the differences in the forms and meanings of the letters of the Etruscan alphabet from the Latin ones. Clay urns and other vessels with black designs found at Tarquinia and Caere also show the connection between Etruscan painting and plastic arts and Greek art: these vases are strikingly similar to Greek period ancient style.

Etruscan trade and industry

The development of cities was facilitated by the fact that the Etruscans took up trade and industry. Since a very long time, Phoenician, Carthaginian and Greek merchant ships sailed to the Etruscan coast, which had good harbors; Agilla, located near the mouth of the Tiber, was a convenient pier for the exchange of goods.

Judging by the shape of the Etruscan vases and the exceptional love of Etruscan artists for depicting scenes from Greek myths and tales of heroes, it must be assumed that the school of art that flourished in southern Etruria was a branch of the Peloponnesian school. But the Etruscans did not borrow the later, more advanced style from the Greeks; they remained forever with the ancient Greek. The reason for this could be that the influence of the Greeks on the Etruscan coast subsequently decreased. It weakened, perhaps because the Etruscans, in addition to honest maritime trade, were also engaged in robbery; their piracy made the Tyrrhenian name a terror to the Greeks. Another reason for the weakening of Greek influence on the Etruscans was that they developed their own commercial and industrial activities. Owning the coastal region from Tarquinia and Caere to Capua, to the bays and capes near Vesuvius, very convenient for navigation, the Etruscans themselves soon began to export expensive products of their country to foreign lands: iron mined on Ilva (Etalia, i.e. Elbe), Campanian and Volaterran copper, Populonian silver and amber that reached them from the Baltic Sea. By bringing goods themselves to foreign markets, they made more profit than when trading through intermediaries. They began to strive to oust the Greeks from the northwestern part of the Mediterranean Sea. For example, they, in alliance with the Carthaginians, drove the Phocians out of Corsica and forced the inhabitants of this poor island to pay them tribute with its products: resin, wax, honey. In addition to pottery, the Etruscans were famous for their foundry art and metal work in general.

Etruscan civilization

Etruscan funeral urn. VI century BC

It is very likely that the Romans borrowed their instruments of military music and attire from the Etruscans, just as they borrowed from them their haruspices, religious rituals, folk festivals, construction art, and land surveying rules. Ancient writers say that from Etruria the Romans took their religious-dramatic games, circus games, common theaters in which actors, dancers and jesters played crude farces; that they also borrowed from the Etruscans gladiator fights, magnificent processions of victors returning from war (triumphs) and many other customs. These ancient reports are confirmed by the latest research. The development of the building art of Etruscan civilization is evidenced by the remains of huge structures, such as, for example, the colossal walls of Volaterr and other cities, the tomb of Porsena in Clusia, the ruins of huge temples, the remains of huge mounds, roads, tombs and other underground structures with arches, canals (for example, called Philistine ditches). The very name “Tyrrenians”, in the ancient form “Tyrseni”, is derived by ancient writers from the fact that the Etruscans built high towers (“thyrsi”) on the seashore to repel enemy landings. Like the Cyclopean walls of the Peloponnese, the structures of the Etruscan civilization are built of large blocks of stone, sometimes hewn, sometimes rough, and lying on top of each other without cement.

The development of technical arts among the Etruscans was favored by the fact that their land had a lot of good materials: soft limestone and tuff were easy to cut to build strong walls; Fat plastic clay took all forms well. The abundance of copper, iron, gold, and silver led to foundry, to the minting of coins, to the manufacture of all kinds of metal tools and accessories. The main difference between Greek and Etruscan art was that among the Greeks art strove for ideal goals and developed according to the laws of beauty, while among the Etruscans it served only the needs of practical life and luxury; Remaining fixed in its ideals, Etruscan art tried to replace their improvement with the preciousness of material and pretentiousness of style. It has forever preserved the character of handicraft work.

Social system of the Etruscans

The Etruscan people were formed from a mixture of different tribes: the newcomers conquered the former population and placed them in the position of a class subject to them; We see this reliably from many facts that have been preserved in historical times. The diversity of the population is especially evidenced by the fact that the Etruscans had a class of subject people, which the rest of the Italian peoples did not have; the subject people were, without a doubt, descendants of the former population of the country, conquered by the newcomers. Etruscan cities ruled by the aristocracy, which was both a military and priestly class: it performed religious rites, commanded the army, and carried out justice; the owner of the estate was at the court the representative of the commoner under his control in his litigation; commoners were subordinate to the owners, whose land they cultivated, paid taxes to their masters or worked for them. “Without this enslavement of the masses of the people, it would hardly have been possible for the Etruscans to erect their enormous structures,” says Niebuhr. Scientists have different opinions about which tribes were the classes of owners and subject people. But in all likelihood the natives belonged to the Umbrian tribe, which in ancient times occupied a very wide area, or were closely related to them. It seems that the descendants of this former population remained especially numerous in the southern parts of the Etruscan land between the Tsimin forest and the Tiber. The dominant so-called Etruscan tribe, no doubt came from the north from the Po Valley. Ancient writers had a very widespread opinion that the Etruscans moved to Italy from Asia Minor; it is also proven by modern research.

Aristocrats called Lucumoni ruled the Etruscan cities. General meeting they probably decided on allied affairs and, in cases of need, chose a allied ruler, who, as a distinction of his rank, had an ivory chair, called a curule, and a toga with a purple trim, and who was accompanied by twelve police servants (lictors), who had bundles of sticks with an insert in them. them with an ax (chamfers, fasces). But this elected head and high priest of the union had quite little power over the cities and aristocrats. The Etruscans loved to give outward shine to their rulers, but did not give them independent power. The twelve cities that made up the union had equal rights, and their independence was little constrained by the allied ruler. Even for the defense of the country they were probably rarely united. The Etruscans, alien to the Italians, soon became accustomed to sending mercenary troops to war.

The Etruscans did not have a free middle class; the oligarchic social system was inevitably associated with unrest; therefore, in the Etruscan states, a decline in energy began early, resulting in political impotence. Agriculture and industry once flourished in them, they had many military and trading ships, they fought with the Greeks and Carthaginians for dominion in the western part of the Mediterranean Sea; but the enslavement of the masses weakened the Etruscan states; The townspeople and villagers had no moral energy.

The Etruscan aristocracy, which at the same time was the priestly class, left with its monopoly those astronomical, physical and other information on which worship was based. The Lucumons performed public sacrifices and fortune-telling using sacrificial animals (haruspices), established an annual calendar, i.e., holiday times, and managed military and peaceful public affairs. They alone knew how to explain signs and recognize the will of the gods from them; They alone knew the laws and customs that had to be observed when founding cities, building temples, when surveying the land, when setting up a military camp. They spread the Etruscan culture across the Pada plain, brought it into the mountains, taught the wild mountain tribes the simplest crafts, and gave them the alphabet. In the early days of Rome, as Livy says, noble Roman youths came to them to learn sacred knowledge. Among the Etruscans, women could also interpret the will of the gods. The Romans had a legend about the soothsayer Tanaquila, the wife of Tarquin the Elder; The Romans kept her spinning wheel in the temple of Sanca.

The Etruscan culture was at a fairly high level of development; the ruins of their structures testify to the enormity and daring of their architectural and engineering work; their painted vases, copper statues, beautiful dishes, elegant decorations, their coins and carved stones surprise us with their beautiful technique; but Etruscan art and, in general, all Etruscan education did not have folk character, were deprived of creative power, therefore they did not have strength, they were alien to progressive development. The Etruscan culture soon stagnated and was subjected to the numbness of craft routine. Knowledge did not have a beneficial, mitigating effect on the Etruscans. social life. It remained the privilege of the ruling class, isolated from the people by the right of birthright into a closed caste, was inextricably linked with religion and surrounded by the horrors of dark superstition.

The Etruscans loved to excess to enjoy the abundant gifts of nature of their country and early indulged in luxury. Twice a day they ate long and a lot; This gluttony seemed strange and bad to the Greeks, who were moderate in food. The Etruscans loved pampered music, skillful dancing, and the cheerful singing of the Fescennians national holidays, terrible spectacles of gladiatorial combat. Their houses were full of patterned carpets, silverware, bright paintings, all sorts of expensive things. The Etruscan servants consisted of whole crowds of richly dressed male and female slaves. Their art did not have Greek idealism and was alien to development; there was no moderation and simplicity in their way of life. The Etruscans did not have that strict family life like the rest of the Italic tribes, there was no complete subordination of the wife and children to the will of the householder, there was no strict sense of legality and justice.

Etruscan painting. Around 480 BC.

Etruscan colonies

The Etruscans founded colonies, the most famous of which were: in the north Fezula, Florence, Pistoria, Luca, Luna, Pisa; in the south Capua and Nola. Etruscan names are also found on the southern bank of the Tiber. Tradition says that on the Caelian hill there was an Etruscan village founded by a newcomer from Volsinia, Celes Vibenna, and after his death, which had as its ruler his faithful associate, Mastarna; in Rome, on the lowland adjacent to the Palatine Hill, there was a part of the city called Etruscan; this name shows that there was once an Etruscan colony here too. Some scholars even believed that the legend about the Tarquin kings means the period of Etruscan rule over Rome and that Mastarna is the king whom the Roman chronicles call Servius Tullius. The Etruscan colonies preserved the laws, customs, and federal structure of their homeland.

Etruscan gods

Alien to the Old Italian tribes by origin, language, way of life, character, culture, the Etruscans also had a religion significantly different from their beliefs and rituals. Greek influence, manifested throughout the Etruscan civilization and explained by their trade relations with Greece and with the Italian colonies of the Greeks, is also found in the Etruscan religion; It is obvious that the Etruscans from a very long time succumbed to the attractiveness of Greek culture and mythology, the spread of which among different peoples united different religions and introduced a cosmopolitan character into aesthetic ideas and their poetry.

Etruscan painting. Feast scene. V century BC

The Etruscans still had their own deities, who were highly respected in those cities in which they were objects of local cult. Such were in Volsinia the patron goddess of the Etruscan federation Voltumna and Nortia (Northia), the goddess of time and fate, in whose temple a nail was driven into the crossbar annually to count the years; in Caere and in the seaside city of Pyrgi such were the forest god Silvanus and the benevolent “mother Matuta,” the goddess of the day of birth and every birth, at the same time the patroness of ships, bringing them safely to the harbor. But besides these native deities, we find among the Etruscans many Greek gods and heroes; They especially revered Apollo, Hercules and the heroes of the Trojan war. The Etruscans respected the Delphic Temple so much that a special treasury was built in its sacred enclosure for their offerings.

The Etruscan king of the gods, the thunderer Tina, whom the Romans called Jupiter, corresponded to Zeus; the Etruscan goddess Cupra (Juno), goddess of the citadel of the city of Veii, patroness of cities and women, corresponded to Hera, and her service was accompanied by the same magnificent games and processions. Menerfa (Minerva) was, like Pallas Athena, the divine power of reason, the patroness of crafts, the female art of spinning wool and weaving, the inventor of the flute, which was played during worship, and the military trumpet; the goddess of heavenly heights, throwing lightning from them, she was also the goddess of military art. Apollo (Aplou) was also among the Etruscans the god of light, a healer of diseases, and a cleanser from sins. Vertumnus, the god of fruits, who changed his appearance according to the seasons, the correct change of which he produced by the rotation of the sky, was among the Etruscans, like the Greek Dionysus, the personification of the course of annual changes in vegetation and in field labor; the change of colors by fruits and the diversity of vegetation are expressed by the fact that Vertumnus accepts different types and various emblems. Its main holiday, called Vertumnalia by the Romans, took place in October, at the end of the grape and fruit harvest, and was accompanied by folk games, fun and fair. The Etruscans borrowed from the Greeks, and from the Etruscans other Italic peoples borrowed the system of six gods and six goddesses, which was generally accepted in the colonies of the Greeks, as in Greece itself. These twelve deities formed a council, and therefore the Romans, who borrowed this idea of them from the Etruscans, were called consentes “co-sitters”; they ruled the course of affairs in the universe, and each of them was in charge of human affairs in one of the twelve months of the year. But they were lesser deities; Above them, the Etruscans had other deities, the mysterious forces of fate, the “veiled gods,” not known by name or number, who lived in the innermost region of the sky and grouped around Jupiter, the king of the gods and ruler of the universe, who questioned them; Their activity manifested itself to the human spirit only during great catastrophes.

Spirits in the Etruscan religion

In addition to these "covered" and lower deities, who were independent personal beings, separated from the infinite divine power, the Etruscans, other Italic peoples and subsequently the Romans, like the Greeks, had an innumerable number of spirits, the activity of which, indefinite in its extent, supported the life of nature and people. These were the patron spirits of clans, communities, localities; for a family, city, district, under the patronage of famous spirits, serving them was of the greatest importance. Among the Etruscans, whose character was gloomy, prone to painful thoughts, the activity of these spirits, and especially the terrible side of it, had a very wide scope.

The cult of death and ideas about the underworld among the Etruscans

The Etruscan religion, equally far from the clear rationalism of the Roman and the bright, humane plasticism of the Greek, was, like the character of the people, gloomy and fantastic; symbolic numbers played an important role in it; there was a lot of cruelty in its dogmas and rituals. The Etruscans often sacrificed slaves and prisoners of war to angry gods; the Etruscan kingdom of the dead, where the souls of the dead wandered (manes, as the Romans called them) and mute deities, Mantus and Mania, ruled, was a world of horror and suffering; in it, fierce creatures in the form of women, called furies by the Romans, tormented the dead; there, to suffer from beatings with sticks and biting snakes, Harun, a winged old man with a large hammer, took souls.

Chimera from Arezzo. An example of Etruscan art. V century BC

Fortune telling among the Etruscans

The Etruscans were very inclined to mysterious teachings and rituals; They greatly developed and from them passed on to the Romans state fortune telling (divinatio, as this art was called by the Romans): fortune telling by the flight of birds (augury), by the flash of lightning (fulgury), by the entrails of sacrificial animals (haruspicy); the art of fortune telling, based on superstition and deception, was developed by the Etruscans and acquired such respect among the Romans and the Italians in general that they did not undertake any important state business without questioning the gods through auguries or haruspices; when unfavorable signs occurred, rituals of reconciliation with the gods were performed; extraordinary natural phenomena (prodigia), happy or unlucky omens (omina) had an influence on all decisions. This feature of the Italians came from their deep faith in fate. The belief in oracles, in omens by which the gods give advice and warnings, borrowed from the Etruscans, was as strong in the Italian folk religion and then in the official religion of Rome as in any other, and the service of the deities of fate, Fortune and Fate (Fatum) was not was nowhere as widespread as in Italy.

The Romans adopted many types of fortune telling from the Etruscans. Auguries were called fortune-telling about the future, about the will of the gods by the flight or cry of some birds and especially eagles. The augur (“bird teller”) stood in an open place (templum), from which the entire sky was visible, and divided the sky into parts with a crooked rod (lituus); The flight of birds from some parts foreshadowed happiness, from others - misfortune. Another way to find out from the actions of the birds whether the planned business would be successful was to give food to the sacred chickens and see if they eat; Not only the priests, but also all patricians who wanted to occupy government positions should have known the rules of this fortune-telling in Rome. The fulgurators observed the appearance of lightning (fulgur), through which the gods also proclaimed their will; if the lightning was unfavorable, then rituals were performed to soften the anger of the gods; - The Etruscans considered lightning to be the most reliable of all heavenly signs. The place where lightning fell was sanctified; They sacrificed a lamb on it, made a cover on it in the shape of a covered frame of a well, and surrounded it with a wall. Most often, the Etruscans performed fortune-telling through haruspices; they consisted in the fact that the fortuneteller who performed them, the haruspex, examined the heart, liver, other internal parts, and sacrificial animals; the rules of these fortune-telling were developed in great detail by the Etruscans. The art of fortune telling - auspices, as the Romans called them, was taught to the Etruscans by Tages, a dwarf with the face of a child and gray hair, who emerged from the ground near Tarquinia in a plowed field; Having taught the Lucumoni (Etruscan priests) the science of fortune telling, he immediately died. Tages's books, containing the doctrine of lightning, of fortune-telling, of the rules that must be observed when founding cities, of land surveying, were the source of all Etruscan and Roman manuals for the art of fortune-telling. The Etruscans had schools in which the Lucumoni, who knew this science well, taught the art of auspices.

Literature about the Etruscans

Zalessky N.N. Etruscans in Northern Italy. L., 1959

Richardson E. The Etruscans: Their Art and Civilization. Chicago, 1964 (in English)

Mayani Z. The Etruscans begin to speak. M., 1966

Hampton K. The Etruscans and the Antiquities of Etruria, London, 1969 (in English)

Burian Jan, Moukhova Bogumila. Mysterious Etruscans. M., 1970

Pallotino M. Etruschi. London, 1975 (in English)

Kondratov A. A. Etruscans - mystery number one. M., 1977

Nemirovsky A.I. Etruscans. From myth to history. M., 1983

Sokolov G.I. Etruscan art. M., 1990

Brendel O. Etruscan Art. New Haven, 1995 (in English)

Vaughan A. Etruscans. M., 1998

Haynes S. Etruscan civilization. Los Angeles, 2000 (in English)

Nagovitsyn A.E. Etruscans: Mythology and Religion. M., 2000

Block Ramon. Etruscans. Predictors of the future. M., 2004

McNamara Ellen. Etruscans: Life, religion, culture. M., 2006

Robert Jean-Noel. Etruscans. M., 2007

Bor, Tomazic. Veneti and Etruscans: at the origins of European civilization: Collection of articles. M. - St. Petersburg, 2008

Ergon J. Daily life Etruscans. M., 2009

(1494-1559)

Argumentation of the migration version

The second theory is supported by the works of Herodotus, which appeared in the 5th century BC. e. As Herodotus argued, the Etruscans were natives of Lydia, a region in Asia Minor, the Tyrrhenians or Tyrsenians, who were forced to leave their homeland due to catastrophic crop failure and famine. According to Herodotus, this happened almost simultaneously with the Trojan War. Hellanicus from the island of Lesbos mentioned the legend of the Pelasgians, who arrived in Italy and became known as the Tyrrhenians. At that time, the Mycenaean civilization collapsed and the Hittite Empire fell, that is, the appearance of the Tyrrhenians should be dated to the 13th century BC. e. or a little later. Perhaps the myth about the flight to the west of the Trojan hero Aeneas and the founding of the Roman state, which was of great importance for the Etruscans, is connected with this legend. Herodotus's hypothesis is supported by genetic analysis data, which confirm the kinship of the Etruscans with the inhabitants of the lands currently belonging to Turkey.

Until the middle of the 20th century. The “Lydian version” was subject to serious criticism, especially after the decipherment of the Lydian inscriptions - their language had nothing in common with Etruscan. However, there is also a version that the Etruscans should not be identified with the Lydians, but with the more ancient, pre-Indo-European population of the west of Asia Minor, known as the “Proto-Luvians”. With the Etruscans of this early period, A. Erman identified the legendary Tursha tribe, which lived in the eastern Mediterranean and carried out predatory raids on Egypt (XIII-VII centuries BC).

Argumentation of the complex version

Based on the material of ancient sources and archaeological data, we can conclude that the most ancient elements of prehistoric Mediterranean unity took part in the ethnogenesis of the Etruscans during the period of the beginning of the movement from East to West in the 4th-3rd millennium BC. e.; also a wave of settlers from the area of the Black and Caspian Seas in the 2nd millennium BC. e. During the formation of the Etruscan community, traces of Aegean and Aegean-Anatolian emigrants were found. This is confirmed by the results of excavations on the island. Lemnos (Aegean Sea), where inscriptions close to the grammatical structure of the Etruscan language were found.

Geographical location

It is not yet possible to determine the exact limits of Etruria. The history and culture of the Etruscans began in the Tyrrhenian Sea region and is limited to the basin of the Tiber and Arno rivers. The country's river network also included the rivers Aventia, Vesidia, Tsetsina, Alusa, Umbro, Oza, Albinia, Armenta, Marta, Minio, and Aro. A wide river network created conditions for developed agriculture, in some places complicated by wetlands. Southern Etruria, whose soils were often of volcanic origin, had extensive lakes: Tsiminskoe, Alsietiskoe, Statonenskoe, Volsinskoe, Sabatinskoe, Trasimenskoe. More than half of the country's territory was occupied by mountains and hills. From the paintings and reliefs one can judge the diversity of flora and fauna of the region. The Etruscans cultivated cypress, myrtle, and pomegranate trees, brought to Italy from Carthage (an image of a pomegranate is found on Etruscan objects in the 6th century BC).

Cities and necropolises

Each of the Etruscan cities controlled a certain territory. The exact number of inhabitants of the Etruscan city-states is unknown; according to rough estimates, the population of Cerveteri in its heyday was 25 thousand people.

Cerveteri was the southernmost city of Etruria; it controlled deposits of metal-bearing ore, which ensured the well-being of the city. The settlement was located near the coast on a steep ledge. The necropolis was traditionally located outside the city. A road led to it along which funeral carts were transported. There were tombs on both sides of the road. The bodies rested on benches, in niches or terracotta sarcophagi. The personal belongings of the deceased were placed with them.

From the name of this city (etr. - Caere) the Roman word “ceremony” was subsequently derived - this is how the Romans called some funeral rites.

The neighboring city of Veii had excellent defenses. The city and its acropolis were surrounded by ditches, making Veii almost impregnable. An altar, a temple foundation and water tanks were discovered here. Vulka is the only Etruscan sculptor whose name we know was a native of Wei. The area around the city is notable for the passages carved into the rock, which served to drain water.

The recognized center of Etruria was the city of Tarquinia. The name of the city comes from the son or brother of Tyrrhenus Tarkon, who founded twelve Etruscan city policies. The necropolises of Tarquinia were concentrated near the hills of Colle de Civita and Monterozzi. The tombs, carved into the rock, were protected by mounds, the chambers were painted for two hundred years. It was here that magnificent sarcophagi were discovered, decorated with bas-reliefs with images of the deceased on the lid.

When laying the city, the Etruscans observed rituals similar to the Roman ones. An ideal place was chosen, a hole was dug into which the sacrifices were thrown. From this place, the founder of the city, using a plow drawn by a cow and an ox, drew a furrow that determined the position of the city walls. Where possible, the Etruscans used a lattice street layout, oriented to the cardinal points.

Story

The formation, development and collapse of the Etruscan state took place against the background of three periods Ancient Greece- orientalizing or geometric, classical (Hellenistic), as well as the rise of Rome. The earlier stages are given in accordance with the autochthonic theory of the origin of the Etruscans.

Proto-Villanovian period

The most important of historical sources, marking the beginning of the Etruscan civilization, is the Etruscan chronology saecula (centuries). According to him, the first century ancient state, saeculum, began around the 11th or 10th century BC. e. This time belongs to the so-called Proto-Villanovian period (XII-X centuries BC). There is extremely little data on the Proto-Villanovians. The only important evidence of the beginning new civilization- a change in the funeral rite, which began to be performed by cremating the body on a funeral pyre, followed by burying the ashes in urns.

Villanova I and Villanova II periods

After the loss of independence, Etruria retained its cultural identity for some time. In the II-I centuries BC. e. local art continued to exist; this period is also called Etruscan-Roman. But gradually the Etruscans adopted the way of life of the Romans. In 89 BC. e. the inhabitants of Etruria received Roman citizenship. By this time, the process of Romanization of Etruscan cities was almost completed, along with Etruscan history itself.

Arts and culture

The first monuments of Etruscan culture date back to the end of the 9th - beginning of the 8th centuries. BC e. The development cycle of Etruscan civilization ends in the 2nd century. BC e. Rome was under its influence until the 1st century. BC e.

The Etruscans long preserved the archaic cults of the first Italian settlers and showed a special interest in death and the afterlife. Therefore, Etruscan art was significantly associated with the decoration of tombs, based on the concept that the objects in them should maintain a connection with real life. The most notable surviving monuments are sculpture and sarcophagi.

Etruscan language and literature

A special category were women's toiletries. One of the most famous products of Etruscan craftsmen were bronze hand mirrors. Some are equipped with folding drawers and decorated with high reliefs. One surface was carefully polished, the reverse was decorated with engraving or high relief. Strigils were made from bronze - spatulas for removing oil and dirt, cysts, nail files, and caskets.

By modern standards, Etruscan houses are rather sparsely furnished. As a rule, the Etruscans did not use shelves and cabinets; things and provisions were stored in caskets, baskets or hung on hooks.

Luxury goods and jewelry

For centuries, Etruscan aristocrats wore jewelry and acquired luxury items made of glass, earthenware, amber, ivory, precious stones, gold and silver. Villanovians in the 7th century BC e. wore glass beads, precious metal jewelry, and faience pendants from the Eastern Mediterranean. The most important local products were brooches, made of bronze, gold, silver and iron. The latter were considered rare.

The exceptional prosperity of Etruria in the 7th century BC. e. caused a rapid development of jewelry and an influx of imported products. Silver bowls were imported from Phenicia, and the images on them were copied by Etruscan craftsmen. Boxes and cups were made from ivory imported from the East. Most jewelry was produced in Etruria. Goldsmiths used engraving, filigree and graining. In addition to brooches, pins, buckles, hair ribbons, earrings, rings, necklaces, bracelets, and clothing plates were widespread.

During the Archaic era, decorations became more elaborate. Earrings in the form of tiny bags and disc-shaped earrings have come into fashion. Semi-precious stones and colored glass were used. During this period, beautiful gems appeared. Hollow pendants or bullas often played the role of amulets and were worn by children and adults. Etruscan women of the Hellenistic period preferred Greek-type jewelry. In the 2nd century BC. e. they wore a tiara on their heads, small earrings with pendants in their ears, disc-shaped clasps on their shoulders, and their hands were decorated with bracelets and rings.

The Etruscans all wore short hair, with the exception of the haruspex priests [ ] . The priests did not cut their hair, but removed it from their foreheads with a narrow headband, a gold or silver hoop [ ] . In an earlier period, the Etruscans kept their beards short, but later they began to shave them clean [ ] . Women let their hair down over their shoulders or braided it and covered their head with a cap.

Leisure

The Etruscans loved to participate in fighting competitions and, perhaps, to help other people with housework [ ] . Also, the Etruscans had a theater, but it did not become as widespread as, for example, the Attic theater, and the manuscripts of plays found are not enough for a final analysis.

Economy

Crafts and agriculture

The basis of Etruria's prosperity was agriculture, which made it possible to keep livestock and export surplus wheat to the largest cities in Italy. Spelled, oat and barley grains were found in the archaeological material. The high level of Etruscan agriculture made it possible to engage in selection - an Etruscan spelled variety was obtained, and for the first time they began to cultivate cultivated oats. Flax was used to sew tunics and raincoats, and ship sails. This material was used to record various texts (this achievement was later adopted by the Romans). There is evidence from antiquities about the strength of linen thread, from which Etruscan artisans made armor (6th century BC tomb, Tarquinia). The Etruscans quite widely used artificial irrigation, drainage, and regulation of river flows. The ancient canals known to archaeological science were located near the Etruscan cities of Spina, Veii, in the Coda region.
In the depths of the Apennines lay copper, zinc, silver, iron, and on the island of Ilva (Elba) iron ore reserves - everything was developed by the Etruscans. The presence of numerous metal products in the tombs of the 8th century. BC e. in Etruria it is associated with an adequate level of mining and metallurgy. Remains of mining are widely found in ancient Populonia (Campiglia Marritima region). The analysis allows us to establish that the smelting of copper and bronze preceded iron processing. There are finds made of copper inlaid with miniature iron squares - a technique used when working with expensive materials. In the 7th century BC e. iron was still a rare metal for processing. Nevertheless, metalworking in cities and colonial centers has been identified: the production of metal utensils was developed in Capua and Nola, and an assortment of blacksmith items was found in Minturni, Venafre, and Suessa. Metalworking workshops are noted in Marzabotto. For that time, the mining and processing of copper and iron was significant in scale. In this area, the Etruscans succeeded in constructing mines for manual extraction of ore.

Ancient mysterious people, who once lived on the Apennine Peninsula, in the territory of modern Italy. Etruria is a region of Tuscany located between the Tiber and Arno rivers. The self-name of the Etruscans - "rassenna" was preserved in the name of the mountain range near Arezzo (ancient Arezzium) in Tuscany. The Greeks knew the Etruscans under the name Tyrrhenians or Tyrsenians, and this was preserved in the name of the Tyrrhenian Sea.

The mystery of the Etruscan people is manifested in almost everything.

Their language is unknown, their writing has not been deciphered, their origin and ethnicity are unclear. Surprisingly little has been written about this people, as if the Etruscans lived some kind of closed life and had practically no contact with their neighbors. The point, apparently, is that the way of life and worldview of the Etruscans was perceived by the majority of the peoples of the Mediterranean as something exceptional. Their way of life, morals and customs seemed so incomprehensible and contradictory to their contemporaries that, along with admiration, they aroused acute rejection and even hatred.”

In September 2013, archaeologists announced a stunning discovery - in the Italian region of Tuscany, they were able to discover a completely sealed tomb carved into the rock.

The intact tomb contained what appeared to be the body of an Etruscan prince armed with a spear. He was buried in the crypt along with his wife's ashes. European media reported the discovery of the tomb of a 2,600-year-old warrior prince. But it turned out that the crypt contains another surprise. Analysis of the bones showed that the warrior prince was in fact a warrior princess.

Historians still know relatively little about Etruscan culture , which flourished in what is now northeastern Italy and was absorbed into Roman civilization around 400 BC. Unlike their contemporaries - the ancient Greeks and Romans - the Etruscans left almost no historical documents that modern European science could unambiguously interpret.

Authors of Greek and Roman written sources most often either write about the Etruscans with condemnation, or simply remain silent about them. But the Etruscans created a unique civilization, amazing masterpieces of art, ecological and economic-social systems. They brought grapes and olives to Italy, founded Rome itself and ruled it for one hundred and fifty years, but disappeared as a people from the face of the planet as if overnight, taking their secrets with them. The most interesting thing is that they predicted their disappearance several centuries ago.

“Etruscan is not readable,” they said in ancient Rome, and this point of view is still adhered to in the West, although quite interesting attempts have been made in Russia to decipher Etruscan inscriptions. Currently, there is no generally accepted point of view on the language of the Etruscans; their graves are a unique opportunity to look into the past and get acquainted with their culture.

Read also: Underground pyramids of the Etruscans

New tombs discovered by archaeologists in Tuscany have been found in the Etruscan necropolis of Tarquinia, a UNESCO World Heritage site where there are more than 6,000 rock-cut crypts.
"The underground chamber, dating back to the early sixth century BC, contains two burial beds carved into the rock," said Alessandro Mandolesi, an archaeologist at the University of Turin who excavated the crypt.

When the archaeological team removed the slab sealing the crypt, we saw two large platforms. On one platform lay a skeleton, next to which lay a spear. On another platform lay partially burned skeletal parts. In addition, several pieces of jewelry and a bronze box were found that may have belonged to the woman.

It was initially thought that the spear would be offered to a skeleton lying on a larger platform - a male warrior, perhaps an Etruscan prince. And the jewelry most likely belonged to the wife of the warrior-prince, whose ashes rested nearby. But analysis of the bones showed that the prince holding the spear was in fact a woman between 35 and 40 years old, while the ashes in the urn belonged to a man.

But why does a woman need a spear? As a Western scholar, Alessandro Mandolesi suggested that it was most likely placed there as a symbol of the union of the two deceased. But his colleagues expressed a different opinion; it is possible that the spear shows the high status of a woman.

In this case, perhaps the perception of Etruscan culture was distorted by the images of the ancient Greeks and Romans. While Greek women were virtually locked in their homes, Etruscan women, according to ancient historians, were more independent and led a rather free lifestyle. So historians, as often happens, hastened to conclusions, declaring the Etruscan princess a prince only on the basis of their ideas about which gender is more likely to use certain objects.

By the way, if Italian archaeologists had been more attentive in studying the ancient history and culture of our fellow countrymen - the Sarmatians, then a woman with a spear would not have caused them so much surprise. And perhaps this is another argument confirming the closeness or even commonality of the cultures of our ancestors. It is possible that someday the world will learn how to correctly read Sarmatian, excuse me, Etruscan.

Who are they, the Etruscans? What did they believe in, how did they live?
Read most interesting book: Nagovitsyn A.E. Mythology and religion of the Etruscans , in which the author tries to understand and trace what the ancient Slavs had in common with the Etruscans, and in what ways they differed, and whether the Etruscans and Russians are actually close relatives:

“We will try to show that many similar mythological, religious and ideological ideas of the Slavs and Etruscans are not borrowing or heritage, but common ideas that have the same root, going deep into the ancient history of the peoples of the Mediterranean region. In our opinion, the ancient peoples who inhabited the Mediterranean were the ancestors of both the Etruscans and the modern Russian people.”

The military affairs of the peoples of the Apennine Peninsula were discussed about the Samnites, since it seemed to the author that their influence on the military affairs of Rome was more significant. It is clear that we had to touch upon the Etruscans, about whose military organization only two sentences are given in the same Wikipedia. But... everything happened as it should have happened: immediately there were “experts” who knew for sure that the Etruscans were the ancestors of the Russians (Slavs), and so off we go. And although there are, fortunately, few such people on this site, they do exist. And this is like on a ship: if there is a small “hole” in the casing, then expect a big leak. We need to patch it up before it starts. Therefore, apparently, it makes sense to return to the topic of the Etruscans and see who they are, where they come from, and then study their military history and armor in more detail.

Warrior and Amazons – wall painting from Targinia, 370 - 360 BC. Archaeological Museum Florence.

Herodotus also reported where they came from to the Apennine Peninsula, who wrote that the Etruscans came from Lydia, a territory in Asia Minor, and that their name was Tyrrhenians or Tyrsenians, and the Romans called them Tusci (hence Tuscany). For a long time, the Villanova culture was considered to be their culture, but now it is more associated with another local population: the Italics. However, after the decipherment of the Lydian inscriptions, this point of view was criticized, since it turned out that their language had nothing in common with Etruscan. The modern point of view is this: the Etruscans are not Lydians as such, but an even more ancient, pre-Indo-European people of the western part of Asia Minor, belonging to the “peoples of the sea.” And it is very possible that the ancient Roman myth about Aeneas, the leader of the beaten Trojans, who moved to Italy after the fall of the fortified Troy, was connected with them. For some reason, archeological data today does not convince a fairly large number of people: “all these are fakes, buried in the ground,” they say, although it is completely unclear what the purpose of these “buries” could be (or was). In general, it turns out that the goal is one: “to offend Russia.” However, the purpose of this “event” is again unclear. Before the revolution of 1917, Russia was an empire whose rulers were closely related to the ruling houses of Europe. That is, there was no point in it. After the revolution, at first no one took it seriously, that is, why offend someone who is already offended and bury money in the ground? But when we really began to pretend to be something, it was simply too late to bury anything - the achievements of science make it possible to recognize any fake.

And it was precisely science that gave us the most important proof that Herodotus and the archaeologists were right. It can be considered proven that the ancient Etruscans moved to Italy from Asia Minor, where they lived in the territory of modern Turkey. By comparing the genetic data of the inhabitants of the Tuscan region (ancient Etruria) with the data of citizens from Turkey, scientists at the University of Turin concluded that they are obviously similar. That is, the Asia Minor origin of the ancient inhabitants of the Apennine Peninsula, which was reported by Herodotus - rightly so! At the same time, the DNA of the inhabitants of the Tuscan Casentino valley and the cities of Volterra and Murlo was studied. The donors of genetic material were men from families who had lived in the area for at least three generations and whose surnames were unique to the region. The Y-chromosomes (which are passed on from father to son) were compared with the Y-chromosomes of people from other areas of Italy, the Balkans, Turkey and also the island of Lemnos in the Aegean Sea. There were more matches with genetic samples from the East than from Italy. Well, a genetic variant was discovered among the residents of Murlo, which is generally found only among residents of Turkey. Here, as they say, that’s it, there’s nothing further to argue about.

Etruscan pendant with a swastika, 700 - 600 AD. BC Bolzena, Italy. Louvre Museum.

True, there is also linguistics, but it cannot yet give a comprehensive answer to the question of the origin of the Etruscan language. Although more than 7,000 Etruscan inscriptions are known, its relationship to any family of languages has not been established. Well, it’s not installed and that’s it! And even by researchers from the USSR. But if the Etruscans come from Asia Minor and have Lydians as their ancestors, then their language should belong to the extinct Hittite-Luvian (Anatolian) group of Indo-European languages. Although the evidence for its Indo-European origin is not convincing enough.

Etruscan warriors carry a fallen comrade. National Museum of Villa Giulia, Rome.

And here the final answer to this debate was given... by cows! A study of the mitochondrial DNA of cows from Tuscany, carried out by a group of geneticists led by Marco Pellecchia from the Catholic University of the Sacred Heart in Piacenza, showed that their distant ancestors have their direct relatives of cows from Asia Minor! At the same time, animals from all regions of Italy were studied. And it turned out that about 60% of the mitochondrial DNA of cows from Tuscany is identical to the mitochondrial DNA of cows from the Middle East and Asia Minor, that is, in the homeland of the legendary Etruscans. At the same time, this study did not establish a relationship between Tuscan cows and cattle from the north and south of Italy. Well, since cows are domestic animals, since they do not fly, do not swim and do not migrate in herds, it becomes clear that they could only get from one part of the Mediterranean to another by sea on ships. And who in that period of time could sail around the Mediterranean Sea on ships and “inherit” their own and “cattle” genes in this way? Only the “peoples of the sea”, who first settled in Sardinia and then on the mainland. By the way, the oldest tribal name of the Etruscans “Tursha” or “Turusha” is also known from the Egyptian monuments of the era of Ramesses II - that is, the time when he waged war with the “peoples of the sea”.

Well, then they simply assimilated. They did not leave Italy, as some Slavophiles claim, to become the ancestors of the Slavs, but rather assimilated. Otherwise... we wouldn’t have found their genes on its territory today. To do this, you need to copulate for a very long time in order to “inherit” so well. And then they would have stolen the cattle too, because at that time it was of great value. But no: both people and livestock - all this remained in Italy. This means that no Etruscans are Russian, and were never our ancestors!

Chimera from Arezzo. Bronze statue of the 5th century. BC e. Archaeological Museum, Florence.

Now culture. Her characteristic features- be it spiritual or material culture, they never completely disappear during resettlement. This is especially true for religion. It is known that the Etruscans believed in afterlife the deceased and, like the Egyptians, tried to provide him with everything necessary “in the next world.” As a result, the Etruscans built tombs for them so that they reminded the deceased of his home and filled them with utensils and furniture. The deceased were cremated, and the ashes were placed in a special urn. Famous and beautiful sculpted sarcophagi.

Etruscan sarcophagus of spouses from the necropolis of Banditaccia. Polychrome terracotta, 6th century BC. e. National Museum of Villa Giulia, Rome.

Personal belongings and jewelry, clothing, weapons and various household items were to be buried along with the urn, that is, there was a strong belief in the soul of a person, not connected with the body! On the walls of the tombs they painted such pleasant scenes in all respects as feasts, sports games and dances. Funeral games, gladiator fights, sacrifices to the deceased - all this was supposed to ease their fate in the “other world.” In this, the Etruscan religion was very different from the ideas of the Greeks, for whom the tomb was just a tomb, a place for a dead body, but nothing more!

The main Etruscan deities were the goddess of love Turan, Tumus - an analogue of the Greek god Hermes, Seflans - the god of fire, Fufluns - the god of wine, Laran - the god of war, Fesan - the goddess of the dawn, Voltumna, Nortia, Lares and the gods of death - Kalu, Kulsu, Leion and etc. The Etruscans wrote down their religious views in sacred books, and the Romans later translated them and learned a lot of interesting things from them, in particular, about fortune telling by the entrails of animals, about heavenly signs and various rituals with the help of which one can “influence” the gods.

Etruscan black-figure vase depicting fighting hoplites, c.550 BC. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Like many ancient societies, the Etruscans conducted military campaigns during the summer months; raided neighboring areas, tried to seize lands, valuable goods and slaves. The latter could be sacrificed on the graves of the deceased to honor their memory, similar to how Achilles tried to honor the memory of the murdered Patroclus.

Etruscan helmet of Corinthian type, VI – V centuries. BC Dallas Museum of Art, Texas.

Written monuments of the Etruscan period are fragmentary, but they also give reason to believe that the Etruscans competed with the early Romans for dominance in central Italy for almost two centuries (c.700 BC - 500 BC), but were the first of Rome's neighboring cultures to succumb to Roman expansion.