The degree of exposure and assimilation of elements of Indian influence was different for coastal and inland (mostly agricultural) regions. In general, the paths of transition to a more mature socio-economic system were determined mainly by local factors that had developed before the start of active contacts with other regions at the turn of the new era.

Section II

INDONESIA IN THE MIDDLE AGES (VII - MID-XVII centuries)

Chapter 2

EARLY MIDDLE AGES (VII-X centuries). THE BEGINNING OF THE COLLECTION OF THE LANDS OF WESTERN NUSANTARA UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE MALAY AND JAVANE KINGDOMS

STAGES IN THE HISTORY OF AGRARIAN RELATIONS DEVELOPMENT

IN MEDIEVAL INDONESIA

In the medieval societies of Indonesia, the bulk of the population were free peasants, united in small rural communities characteristic of medieval Southeast Asia(in general, any free person was a member of a specific community). During the 8th-15th centuries, judging by epigraphic data and information from narrative sources, primarily from Java, the dependence of communities, first on the power of the monarch, and then more and more on the power of specific private owners increased. At the same time, representatives of its elite stood out from the community. Initially, they enjoyed various privileges without leaving the community financially, remaining village officials, and later more and more often moved to the position of officials under the monarch. Accordingly, if the most massive lower part of the layer of exploiters was previously represented by the community elite, then in the future the share of state employees - small and medium-sized officials - is continuously growing in its composition (but does not become the main one).

The social position of the clergy also changed; united at first around mostly large churches, the further it went, the more it turned into a corporation of small and medium-sized clergy, more or less connected with the state apparatus.

Land at this time in Java and, apparently, in other developed areas of the Archipelago could be the object of ownership of both a community and a private individual.

The subject of our socio-economic analysis will primarily be well-documented Java, since the socio-economic structures known to us, characteristic of the medieval Malays, Balinese, etc., are in principle similar to those of the Javanese. Land in Java has belonged as property since the 8th century. sovereigns of two levels: princes- cancer and the monarch who grew up from their midst and stood over them; then from the end of the 10th century and at least through the 15th century. - only to the monarch. The Raka were large hereditary rulers of small principalities that arose in Central Java during the formation of class society, then they turned into a hereditary aristocracy of the patrimonial type in the 8th-9th centuries. gradually losing part of its privileges in favor of the monarch and the highest representatives of power - Rakarayan. By the end of the 9th century. sovereignty is identified only with the maharaja (monarch), and the supreme ownership of land becomes (until the end of the 15th century) “monocentric” instead of the earlier “polycentric”. In the second quarter of the 10th century. the center of economic activity in Mataram moved from Central to East Java, where the prerequisites for the formation of classes arose later. The central government, which had already become the supreme owner of the land in the fight against cancer, here entered into direct relations with the top of the communities, from among which cancer had not yet emerged. More complex than in the center of Java in the 8th century, the apparatus of centralized oppression in the 10th century. superimposed on the village society of East Java, where large domains such as the crayfish domain had not yet developed. A new social situation arose in which there was no place for large non-service owners not related to the monarch. Only in the 15th century. the Javanese once again had a large hereditary landed aristocracy, and with political rights; but now these are members of the monarch’s family, who soon tore the country into inheritances.

It is noteworthy that the monarch, the bearer of central power, acquired supreme ownership of the land only in two centuries (VIII-IX), at least in the traditional understanding of our science. Although the large feudal lords were defeated by the end of the 9th century, nevertheless, the supreme power made the arena of its economic and political activity not the center of Java, where it won, but the east, where the vanquished did not exist as a social group at all, at least in the 10th-11th century centuries There, in almost pure form, a model familiar from other Asian countries took shape: “monarch - community.” It was preserved, which rarely happens, for several centuries, during which a service middle class (secular and partly clergy) emerged from the free ones, and later, due to the strengthening of the ownership rights of the monarch’s closest relatives, large hereditary owners - sconces - arose from among them (soon - with political rights). The latter were destroyed in the 15th century. that type of state that corresponded to the pronounced supreme ownership of land - a centralized state-empire with a detailed system of exploitation of the free. Moreover, this detailed system itself began to disappear noticeably earlier than the collapse of the political institutions of the centralized empire - from the beginning of the 14th century, if not earlier. This is evidenced by the massive transfer by the state of its property rights to service and sometimes non-service hereditary owners (not to be confused with immunities in general, which existed since the 8th century), as well as the general decline in the detail of taxation, the widespread use of customary law (later prevailing in Indonesia , and everywhere in Southeast Asia).

These processes prepared the way for the decline of the centralized state and the collapse of the Majapahit Empire at the end of the 15th century, but the transition to the use of customary law by society did not mean then, at the turn of the 13th-14th centuries, the abandonment of the state’s supreme ownership of land. It only marked the onset of the second period of the functioning of such property, almost everywhere in Southeast Asia, accompanied by a certain decline in centralization - the period of collection of the bulk of the rent-tax by those layers of society (servicemen, clergy, sometimes non-servicemen) to whom it was transferred by the state, and not by itself state, as before.

The processes of socio-economic development listed above did not proceed evenly over eight centuries. In the picture of agrarian relations in Javanese society, which is drawn by the data of a quantitative analysis of inscriptions of the 8th-15th centuries, several eras of economic activity and corresponding innovations can be distinguished (primarily in the field of redistribution of land property). Each of them has certain socio-economic characteristics, each corresponds to clearly defined segments political history Central and East Java, that is, the Javanese people. There are three such eras: the first 732-928. (transitional Malang period 929-944); second 992-1197; third era 1264-1486 They are separated by periods of time when inscriptions are unknown at all, so eras and periods do not have clearly defined time boundaries. There are some differences from the traditional periodization of the political history of Java, which, however, is still poorly justified for a number of periods.

Each of the three eras is characterized by a special specific composition of permanent social groups and special types of relations between them, as well as each of the groups - to the land. What kind of groups are these?

They are traditional for medieval class societies: the monarch as the bearer of central power; service and non-service large hereditary landowners; service (less often non-service) medium and small landowners; clergy; village elite - village officials; free ordinary population of the village; non-community craft and trade groups; dependent village population. Both the nature of these groups, and the degree of similarity of some of them to each other, as well as the relation of each of them to the earth, often changed over time, from era to era, as will be shown in the course of the description of the eras themselves.

13. WESTERN EUROPEAN CULTURE OF NEW TIMES

(XVII – XIX centuries.)

13.1. Western European culture of the 17th century

The social changes that occurred during the Renaissance prepared the transition of Western European society to a new state, to a new stage of cultural development. This transition was carried out through bourgeois revolutions. At the end of the 16th century, the first bourgeois revolution took place in the Netherlands, as a result of which the bourgeois Republic of Holland arose in the north of the country, and the south of the country, called Flanders, came under the protectorate of Spain. In the middle of the 17th century, the English bourgeois revolution took place, during which King Charles I was executed in 1649. A new bourgeois system was established in these countries. Feudal forms of economy were quickly overcome, industrial production and entrepreneurship developed rapidly. All this formed a unique culture that set Europe apart from the rest of the world. Therefore, the period that began was called New Time.

However, in most European countries in the 17th century, late feudal relations prevailed, and the form of government was absolutism. France was an example of such rule. The Church actively opposed new trends in ideology and culture. The counter-reformation movement was strongest in Italy and Spain. At the same time, Protestantism was spreading in Europe, which became the spiritual and moral basis of the New Age. The new worldview also affected religious ideas. Deism is born - the idea of ​​God as some kind of focus of reason; God ceases to be the creator of the world.

Views on society and the state are being revised. English philosopher Thomas Hobbes(1588 – 1679) for the first time presented the state not as

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a divine creation, but as a result of the conscious activity of people. He considered absolute monarchy to be the main form of government. He outlined his views in the book “Leviathan”. The Dutch materialist philosopher Benedict Spinoza (1632-1677) developed Hobbes's doctrine of the state, but considered democratic rule to be the highest form of power and put forward the idea of ​​the human right to freedom.

IN In modern times, science begins to develop rapidly: first, mathematics and mechanics, then natural science. Since that time, science has relied on observation, experience, and scientific experiment. In the 17th century, scientific organizations began to emerge - scientific societies and Academies of Sciences. Thus, in 1635, the French Academy was created, and in 1660, the Royal Society of London.

IN astronomy Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler developed and substantiated the heliocentric theory of Copernicus, established the laws of motion of all bodies,

V including heavenly ones. I. Newton, G. Leibniz and R. Descartes created mathematical methods that made it possible to accurately determine and calculate various phenomena. Pascal, Boyle, Mariotte, Torricelli began studying liquids and gases, and Descartes and Newton began developing the theory of light. The invention of the microscope contributed to the development of biology. Important inventions of applied science were the invention of the pendulum clock by Huygens, the telescope and microscope by Galileo.

IN Australia was discovered in the 17th century, ending the era of great geographical discoveries.

The development of exact and natural sciences gave impetus to the development of philosophy, which developed in close connection with science. The founder of English materialism was Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626). In his treatise “New Organon”, he proclaimed the goal of science to increase man’s power over nature and proposed a reform of the scientific method of cognition, the basis of which

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considered an appeal to experience. Bacon's philosophy had a huge influence on the philosophy of the Enlightenment; his proposed classification of knowledge was adopted by French encyclopedists.

In the history of Western European art, the 17th century marks the heyday of the national art schools of Flanders, Holland, Spain, and France. However, the art of this period is characterized by a number of common features. Expanding ideas about the world around us leads to the abandonment of anthropocentrism, characteristic of the culture of the Renaissance. Now not only man, but also the world around him becomes the subject of depiction in literature and art. New genres appear in painting: landscape, still life, depictions of animals, everyday life and historical genres. The portrait, which arose during the Renaissance, receives further development. An important moment in the development of Western European art in the 17th century was the change from the sequential development of world artistic styles to their parallel development. If before this in Europe the Romanesque style was replaced by the Gothic style, and then it was replaced by the Renaissance style, then in the 17th century, almost simultaneously, large world styles emerged and developed - Baroque and Classicism, which are supranational in nature and cover different types of art. In this regard, one can observe a combination of these styles in different types art, especially in architecture.

Baroque. The leading style in the art of the 17th century was Baroque. This style originated in Italy at the end of the 16th century. Then the Baroque developed in other countries where feudal relations and the Catholic Church of Flanders, Spain, and Germany were strong. It is reflected in architecture, sculpture, painting, and music.

Baroque art was aimed at supporting the Catholic Church in its fight against the Reformation and therefore it sought to influence the feelings of people. However, Baroque art is quite controversial. On the one side,

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it glorified the feudal nobility and the Catholic Church, and on the other hand, it manifested new, progressive ideas about the boundlessness and variability of the world, interest in surrounding a person environment and nature.

Baroque architecture is characterized by the construction of grandiose palaces and churches, the creation of city and park ensembles. All buildings were distinguished by their monumentality and curvilinear outlines; the interiors were decorated with stucco, carvings, gilding, multi-color sculpture, columns, and picturesque plafonds (ceilings), which created the illusion of endless space.

IN In the 17th century, Baroque architecture received its greatest development in Rome. Architecture was closely connected with sculpture, which decorated the facades and interiors of churches, villas, city houses, parks, tombstones, and fountains. In Baroque it is sometimes difficult to separate the work of the architect and the sculptor. An outstanding Italian architect and sculptor was Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598 - 1680). His main creation is the colonnade on the square of the Cathedral of St. Peter's in Rome. He designed the royal staircase in the Vatican, created the Triton Fountain in Piazza Barberini and the Fountain of the Four Rivers in Piazza Nanova in Rome.

IN architecture of France, England, Germany in the 17th – early 18th centuries. there was a combination of baroque and classicism. Significant buildings in France in the 17th century were the Louvre (architect Perrault) and the country residence of the French kings Versailles (architects L. Levo and J.Hardoueng-Mansart). In England, the leading architect has 2 floors. XVII – early XVIII centuries. was K.Ran. His most significant work is St. Paul's Cathedral in London. In Germany, the 17th century is represented by famous buildings: the Zwinger (or Citadel) - part of a large ensemble for open-air celebrations in Dresden; one-story Sanssouci Palace in Potsdam. In these buildings, Baroque elements are displayed on the facades of the buildings.

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Baroque painting is represented by paintings on religious, mythological and allegorical subjects, ceremonial portraits and still lifes. The paintings combine reality with fantasy, religiosity with emphasized sensuality. Baroque paintings are distinguished by their bright colors and monumental figures.

Baroque painting received its greatest development in Flanders. The main customers of works of art were the nobles, the higher burghers and the Catholic Church. An outstanding Flemish artist was Peter Paul Rubens (1577 - 1640). His painting has national characteristics. The life-affirming principle predominates in the paintings, mysticism and exaltation are absent. He painted paintings with religious (“Hoisting the Cross”, “Descent from the Cross”) and mythological (“The Kidnapping of the Daughters of Leucippus”, “Battle of the Greeks with the Amazons”) subjects. He paid much attention to portraits (“Self-portrait with his wife Isabella Brandt”, “Portrait of a Cameraman”, “Elena Fourman with Children”). Rubens's work had a great influence on the development of Western European art, especially in the 19th century.

A prominent representative of the Flemish school of the 17th century was also Anthony van Dyck (1599 - 1641). Paintings on mythological and religious subjects (“Susanna and the Elders,” “St. Jerome,” “Madonna and the Partridges”) occupy a significant place in his work. But van Dyck’s main genre is portraiture. He paints portraits of church prelates, aristocrats, and wealthy burghers. In 1632, the artist left for England and became the founder of the school of portrait art in this country (portrait of Charles I hunting; portrait of Thomas Wharton).

In the 17th century, secular motifs gradually began to penetrate into music, and new genres emerged. An opera was created within the framework of the Baroque style. One of the first operas was written by the Italian composer Claudio Monteverdi (1567 –

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1643). His most famous work is the opera “Orpheus” (1606), in which for the first time the depth of human feelings was conveyed in music. The Baroque style existed in Western European culture until the middle of the 18th century.

Classicism. In the middle of the 17th century, a new direction in culture emerged in Italy - classicism, which existed in Western European culture until the 30s of the 19th century. During this time, classicism went through several stages of development and experienced very significant changes. In the XYII century, this style was most clearly manifested in the noble culture of France. Classicism is reflected in architecture, literature and theater, and fine arts.

A characteristic feature of classicism is its appeal to the traditions of antiquity and High Renaissance. The ideology of classicism was formed under the influence of the philosophy of Rene Descartes (1596 - 1650), who believed that the ideal of beauty is eternal and unchanging, and it was already embodied in the works of antiquity and the High Renaissance. The masters of classicism did not strive to show the surrounding reality and specific people. They created an ennobled world, ideal images. The subject matter for their works was ancient history, mythology and the Bible.

Literature and theater received great development within the framework of classicism. Classicism has been recognized as the official direction in French literature since the formation of the Academy of Literature in 1635 in Paris. In the second half of the 17th century, new development began French theater. In particular, in 1680 the Comedie Française theater arose.

The literature of classicism was divided into high (tragedy, ode, epic) and low (comedy, fable, satire) genres. The subjects of the “high” genres were mythology, historical events, state life, the heroes were monarchs, generals, martyrs for the faith. The dramatic conflict of tragedies is the struggle between public duty and personal feelings. Forefather

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Pierre Corneille (1606 – 1684), the author of the tragedies “Cid”, “Horace”, “Oedipus” and others, became a classicist in the literature of France. Corneille is considered the creator of the French theater. Also a famous playwright of this period was Jean Racine (1639 – 1699), who wrote the tragedies “Andromache”, “Berenice”, “Phaedra”, etc.

Authors of “low” genres sought to show the life of middle-class people and therefore wrote comedies in a lively language, without excessive pathos. The work of Moliere (real name Jean Baptiste Poquelin, 1622 - 1673), the famous comedian and actor, had a great influence on the development of world drama. In his work he combined classicism and traditions of folk theater. He created the genre of social comedy, which ridiculed the class prejudices of the nobles, the narrow-mindedness of the bourgeoisie, the hypocrisy and hypocrisy of churchmen, stinginess, and vanity. Moliere's plays “The Bourgeois in the Nobility”, “The Imaginary Invalid”, “Tartuffe, or the Deceiver” were included in the golden fund of world drama.

A famous author of fables was the French poet Jean La Fontaine (1621 - 1695), who in his work relied on ancient traditions (Aesop's fables) and used the so-called animal epic. In his works, absolute monarchy and aristocratic society were compared to the kingdom of bloodthirsty and predatory animals. At this time, Charles Perrault (1628 - 1703) wrote his famous fairy tales. His collection “Tales of Mother Goose” includes the fairy tales “Sleeping Beauty”, “Little Red Riding Hood”, “Cinderella”, “Puss in Boots”.

In the 17th century classicism is gradually beginning to penetrate into religious architecture. Architects are occupied with the problem of the relationship between the ensemble of the palace and the park. These ideas were most clearly embodied in the construction of Versailles, the country residence of the French kings. It is typical for all buildings

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clarity and geometric correctness of buildings, regular layout, appeal to the ancient order.

The founder of classicism in painting was the French artist Nicolas Poussin (1594 - 1665), who painted paintings on mythological and literary themes. Strict balance of composition, cult of nature and admiration for antiquity are characteristic features of his work. Most famous paintings“The Death of Germanicus”, “Tancred and Erminia”, “Landscape with Polyphemus”, the cycle “The Seasons”.

In the middle of the 17th century, the Academy of Painting and Sculpture was founded in France, which enabled the state to manage art. Also an important role in artistic life France was played by the royal Gobelin Manufactory, where objects of applied art were created: furniture, precious utensils, tapestries, etc.

Realism in painting. In the 17th century, the style of realism was formed only in painting. The first realistic movement was “Caravaggism,” named after the Italian artist Michelangelo Merisi de Caravaggio (1573 – 1610). He sought to show the surrounding reality and became the founder of everyday painting and still life in the art of Italy. In his paintings he depicted ordinary people and even outcasts from society (“The Lute Player”, “The Players”, “Bacchus”). A large place in his work is occupied by paintings on religious subjects (“Evangelist Matthew with an Angel”, “Confession of the Apostle Matthew”, “Entombment”), but in the interpretation of the scenes they are more similar to household painting than religious.

The most vividly realistic tendencies manifested themselves in the painting of Holland and Spain. The victory of the bourgeois system and Calvinism in Holland interrupted the development of monumental and decorative art. But the demand for works of art was very great. The customers were private individuals and therefore preference was given to small easel paintings.

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The most popular genres were portraits, including group paintings, everyday genres, landscapes, still lifes and images of animals. Although the Protestant Church rejected religious painting, paintings on religious themes were created. But compared to Catholicism, they had a different character: mysticism was supplanted by a realistic interpretation of the plot, and these paintings became closer to everyday painting.

One of the largest portrait painters in Holland was Frans Hals (c. 1580 – 1666). His group portraits express feelings of camaraderie, equality, and freedom (“Shooting Guild”). Individual portraits are characterized by democracy, fullness of life and movement (“The Laughing Cavalier”, “Gypsy”).

The pinnacle of Dutch art of the 17th century is the work of Rembrandt. His works have received worldwide recognition. Harmens Van Rijn Rembrandt (1606 – 1669) was a painter, draftsman, and etcher. He painted portraits (“Self-portrait with Saskia on his lap”, “Reading Titus”), group portraits (“Anatomy of Doctor Tulpa”, “Night Watch”, “Syndics”), philosophical, religious and mythological paintings (“Flora”, “Danae” , "Return of the Prodigal Son"). Rembrandt's work received full recognition only in the 19th century.

Prominent spanish artist XYII century Diego Rodrigo de Silva Velazquez (1599 - 1660) was a court painter of the Spanish king. Portraits of members of the royal family and courtiers occupy a large place in his work. The most famous is the group portrait "Las Meninas" ("Maids of Honor"), in which Velázquez depicted himself. The portrait of Pope Innocent X received worldwide recognition, in which the artist managed to convey the tough character of this man. Velazquez became the founder of the historical genre in Western European painting (“Surrender of Breda”).

Among the most famous museums are National Museum in Jakarta, the Zoological Museum in Bogor and the Geological Museum in Bandung. The National Museum was founded in 1778 on the basis of the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences, but was finally formed in 1862, when the museum and library of the Batavian Society were housed in a new building in Jakarta. The museum has a significant collection of works of Indonesian culture, organizes exhibitions and hosts large research work. Among the capital's museums one can note the Museum national history(founded in 1975), Jakarta History Museum (founded in 1974), Wayang Museum (founded in 1975), Museum of Fine Arts (founded in 1976), Textile Museum (founded in 1976), Sea Museum (founded in 1976). in 1977) and the Armed Forces Museum "Abri Satria Mandala" (founded in 1972). The Taman Mini Indonesia (“Beautiful Indonesia in Miniature” park, founded in 1980) is well known, the exhibitions of which tell about the culture and life of the peoples inhabiting Indonesia. There are numerous museums in provincial cities. Among them are the Travulan Archaeological Museum (Java) with collections of antiquities from the 13th to 15th centuries; Sana Budaya Museum (founded in 1935, Yogyakarta) with an art collection of art from Java, Bali and Madura; Diponegoro Museum (Yogyakarta); Surakarta Historical Museum. Many museums are located on the island. Bali: Neka Museum (founded in 1982, Bali), Museum of Fine Arts “Puri Lukisan Ratna Vartha” (founded in 1956, Ubud). The Bali Museum (founded in 1932, Denpasar) has a rich collection of local art and crafts.

E. Rotenberg

The states of medieval Indonesia occupied territory on the islands of the vast Malay Archipelago. The bulk of its population were Malay tribes and nationalities, representatives of the southern type of the Mongol race. The location of the archipelago on the sea routes established between India and China from the first centuries of our era played a big role in the historical destinies of these peoples. The natural resources of Indonesia, and above all spices, have attracted the attention of Asian and subsequently European conquerors for many centuries. Since the beginning of the first millennium AD, the islands of the archipelago became the object of Indian colonization.

By that time, the Malay tribes were at various stages of social development. In the most developed areas - the coastal regions of Sumatra and Java - the process of decomposition of the primitive communal system and the formation of the first slave states was completed. As a result of the conquest of Sumatra and Java by immigrants from India in the first centuries of our era, Indonesian principalities arose here, the ruling class in which were Indian conquerors mixed with the ruling elite of the Malay tribes. The basis of the economy of these principalities was agriculture using artificial irrigation. Slave relations were gradually replaced by feudal ones, and by the 8th century. the feudal system proved dominant in Java and Sumatra. Crafts developed; Constant trade relations with the countries of the continent, including China, contributed to the flourishing of navigation and related shipbuilding. Large trading cities emerged.

One of the results of colonization was the spread of the Hindu cult in Indonesia, which existed here along with Buddhism, often intertwined with it. Among the masses of indigenous people, however, animistic ideas characteristic of the previous stage of historical development still remained. The Indian conquerors also brought with them a rich culture.

Apparently, the social and cultural development of the local peoples was quite high, and Indian culture did not become the property of a narrow ruling elite. Accepted by wider sections of society, it played an important role in the formation and development of Indonesian art.

Although the territory occupied by the Indonesian states was subsequently extremely vast, the main area where monuments of medieval art were concentrated was the island of Java - the most populated and richest natural resources of all the islands of the Malay archipelago. It was here that the first surviving monuments of stone construction in Indonesia arose - the temples on the Dieng plateau, dating back to the 7th and early 8th centuries. The Dieng Plateau was at that time the main center of worship in Central Java, a place of religious pilgrimage. Of the many religious buildings erected there, only eight have survived to date. These are typical examples of Javanese temples known as candi.

Chandi is a relatively small-sized, free-standing temple in the form of a compact cubic massif placed on a stepped base and topped with a high stepped covering of pyramidal outlines. On the side of the main facade, the main volume was usually adjacent to a slightly protruding entrance portal, to which a steep staircase leads; the other three walls were also equipped with portals or niches, the platbands of which, like the frame of the entrance portal, were decorated with ornamental carvings and demon masks. Inside the temple there was a small room covered with a false pyramidal dome; there was a statue of a deity here. Many features of the compositional structure of the chandi were associated with the nature of the worship, which was performed not inside the temple, but mainly outside it, and these religious requirements received a unique aesthetic interpretation in temple architecture. The Javanese chandi is a kind of temple-monument, designed primarily for viewing from the outside, which explains its equilateral plan, expressive silhouette, and special plasticity of architectural masses and forms.

The question of the origin of the chandi type itself is quite complex. There is no doubt that Indian architecture, especially the monuments of southern India, where the main stream of Indian colonization came from, had a significant influence on its formation. This is reflected in the inherent dominance of mass over space in Javanese temples, in the nature of their structures and architectural forms, and in some decorative techniques. The buildings that arose in previous centuries on the territory of the Indochina Peninsula, in particular the early Cambodian prasat, were probably also of considerable importance for the formation of the Chandi type. It should be noted, however, that already the first Javanese temples bear the stamp of originality, distinguishing them from continental examples. In comparison with Indian temples, Javanese chandis stand out for their simplicity and austerity of appearance, and in comparison with the buildings of Cambodia - for their more harmonious proportions, clarity and clear tectonics of architectural forms. An example is the Puntadeva chandi on the Dieng plateau (7th-early 8th century) (ill. 162) - a small building of slender proportions, square in plan. Excessive fragmentation of forms and ornamental abundance characteristic of Indian temples are absent here; calm straight lines predominate; The plasticity of the wall is discreetly revealed by pilasters and panels. The cornices of the plinth and cella are emphasized somewhat more energetically, introducing the necessary contrasts into the tectonics of the building. The high cover repeats in a reduced form the shape and division of the cella. Individual motifs, the nature of breaks and profiles may even outwardly resemble the forms of ancient order architecture.

Dating back to the 7th - early 8th century. Chandi Bhima walls are interpreted even more strictly; Not only the ornament is missing, but even the obligatory demon masks over the openings. The frieze of garlands and modillions of the cornice are surprisingly close in shape to ancient motifs. The general upward direction of the entire volume of the cella is strengthened by the introduction of an attic, repeating the main divisions of the wall. But the high pyramidal crown is distinguished by its complexity and richness of forms. Along the axes of the slopes and in the corners it is decorated with a multi-tiered system of arched recesses; Inside each such recess there is a sculpted head of Bhima, one of the heroes of the Mahabharata, whose name this chandi bears. A clearly drawn contrast between the strict cella and the complex coating indicates a high artistic skill builders of the temple.

In the 7-8 centuries, with the strengthening of the feudal system in Indonesia, the process of consolidation of small Indo-Malay principalities into larger state associations began. This process coincided with a particularly strong wave of Indian military, religious and cultural expansion. During this period, the first powerful Indonesian power arose - the state of Srivijaya, headed by the rulers of the Shailendra dynasty. The capital of the power was the port of Palembang on Sumatra, which became one of the largest cities in Southeast Asia. The state of Srivijaya retained its predominant importance for several centuries; during its heyday - in the 8th - 9th centuries - it included, along with Sumatra, part of Java and other islands of the archipelago, the Malay Peninsula and the Philippines; Cambodia and Champa were dependent on him. It was a huge maritime empire with a strong navy that controlled trade routes along the southern and southeastern coasts of Asia.

Around 732, the rulers of the Shailendra dynasty captured Central Java. The inclusion of this area in the powerful state of Srivijaya gave Javanese art a different, incomparably larger scale, expanding its tasks and capabilities. During the same period, Buddhism in India suffered a final defeat in the fight against Brahmanism, and a large number of Indians professing Buddhism moved to Java. -This circumstance strengthened the influence of the Buddhist cult in Java and affected the construction of temple buildings.

8th and 9th centuries became the time of the first powerful rise of Indonesian art. Monuments in Sumatra of this period preserved in small quantities; The main artistic center at this time became Central Java, which remained under the rule of Shailendra from 732 to 800. A number of valuable monuments were preserved in the city of Prambanam, where the residence of the ruling dynasty was located.

New features are already evident in the architecture of traditional chandi. Built in 779 on the Prambanam Plain, Chandi Kalasan (Fig. 163), dedicated to the goddess Tara, the female incarnation of the bodisattva Avalokiteshvara, is the first known and accurately dated Buddhist structure on Yanana soil. This monument is one of the best creations of Indonesian architecture. Unfortunately, the temple reached us somewhat damaged: the architectural treatment of the high plinth was lost, and the covering was badly damaged.

Already in size, Chandi Kalasan significantly exceeds the early temples - this is a real monumental structure. The plan, instead of the usual square, represents a kind of cross with wide sleeves - risalits. This construction is explained by the presence on each of the three sides of the temple - except for the entrance - a special chapel, to which a separate entrance with a steep staircase leading up to it led. The first tier of octagonal outlines and partially the round second tier have been preserved from the covering. The general appearance of Chandi Kalasan with its finely found balance of load-bearing and supported parts reveals features of similarity with the buildings on the Dieng plateau, but its design is distinguished by greater depth and at the same time complexity. The peculiar “order” interpretation of the wall, characteristic of early Javanese architecture, reached particular sophistication here. Light pilasters, barely protruding from the solid walls, form panels of varying widths - narrow, completely filled with the finest ornaments, and wide, with the smooth plane of which contrasts the relief masks of demons, incomparable in the richness and beauty of their decorative patterns. The broken parts and profiles of the upper part of the plinth and the unusually complex entablature of the cella are distinguished by their exceptional diversity and subtlety. But despite the great diversity and richness of motifs and forms, this structure retains the clarity of its overall tectonic structure. It cannot be disturbed even by bizarre cult motifs, for example, rows of bell-shaped stupas (called dagobas in Indonesia), placed as crowns above each of the four projections of the cella.

In the Kalasan chandi, attention is drawn to the nature of the ornamental stone carvings. The ornament itself, in the presence of figurative elements, has to a very large extent purely decorative expressiveness. The carving is remarkable for its subtlety, almost airiness; The openwork pattern fits unusually easily on the wall, without disturbing its flatness, but rather shading it. A similar principle of ornamentation (which applies to the entire architectural decor as a whole) distinguishes the Indonesian monuments of this time from the works of Indian temple architecture, in which an excess of plastically interpreted ornamental forms is in accordance with the general * spirit of the architectural image, as if embodying the elemental power of the forms of organic nature.

By the end of the 8th century. refers to another outstanding work of Javanese architecture - Chandi Mendut, one of the most famous shrines of the island, located on the road to the greatest monument of Buddhist architecture in Java - Borobudur. Like Chandi Kalasan, this is also a building of large size, but more austere and restrained in form; the taste for large, calm planes is more clearly expressed in it. A distinctive feature of the Mendut chandi is a very wide and high terrace-like base, on which, like on a platform, rises a cella square in plan with risalits barely protruding in the middle of each wall. The cella is topped with a covering in the form of square terraces running in two tiers. The entablature of the cella and the roof ledges are decorated only with strict crenellations. In Chandi Mendut one can especially feel the heavy mass of the wall and the massiveness of the architectural forms. The impression of massiveness is created by the very masonry of large stone squares; It is especially promoted by the almost complete absence of openings and recesses in the walls. Only the figures of bodisattvas, made in low relief technique and placed in a beautiful frame, soften the harsh power of the walls (ill. 164).

Chandi Kalasan and Mendut are compelling examples of what Indonesian art was producing in the 8th century. completely original monuments, not inferior in their artistic significance to the monuments of Indian architecture of this period.

The further development of Javanese architecture is characterized by the creation of temple complexes, marked by bold quests in the field of volumetric-spatial construction. The Chandi Sevu in Prambanam, which has come down to us in ruins, was built at the beginning of the 9th century, and was an ensemble where the main temple, located on a high terrace-like base, towered majestically above the four concentric rectangles surrounding it, formed by a huge number of tiny temples. The following data gives an idea of ​​the scale of this complex: the total number of these temple-chapels is two hundred and forty, the length of the entire ensemble along the longitudinal axis is over 180 m, along the transverse axis - about 170 m. All buildings were richly decorated with sculpture and ornaments. The central temple is large in size; with its cruciform plan it resembled the Kalasan chandi: on each of the four sides it was adjoined by a chapel with an independent entrance and a staircase leading to it. All four facades are the same, which is due to the location of the temple in the center of the complex. The two double belts of small churches surrounding the central temple are laid out in such a way that from afar along the axial directions a spectacular view opens up on each of the four facades of the temple, which rises above a whole ridge of fancy crowns formed by several rows of temple-chapels. The use of such a planning principle was associated with ideas of a cult nature: the strict geometric construction of the plan of the entire complex concealed certain religious symbolism. But elements of abstract symbolism turned out to be transformed here into factors of great artistic expressiveness. Using them, the builders of Chandi Sevu demonstrated their inherent art of high artistic organization: they were able to merge a huge number of diverse buildings and the entire multiplicity of architectural forms into a single whole, into a genuine architectural ensemble.

The most significant creation of the architecture of the Shailendra era and all Javanese architecture in general is the famous Borobudur - a monumental temple of grand scale, erected in the second half of the 8th and early 9th centuries. in the Kedu Valley (Central Java).

Borobudur is a flat earthen hill surrounded by stone-lined terraces rising above each other in five tiers (ill. 166, 167). Thus, in general, the monument turns out to be like a giant step pyramid. In plan, the terraces of this structure form a square with many ledges; the dimensions of the base are 111X111 m. the total height of the building is 35 m. The terraces have an internal circumambulation, along the walls of which an endless ribbon of relief compositions spreads (ill. 169 a); the crest of each of the terraces is decorated with bell-shaped decorative stupas running almost in a continuous row, as well as niches following at certain intervals in a complex architectural and ornamental frame. Inside each of these niches, which in outline represent a kind of stupa in cross-section, is placed a statue of Buddha. Thus, on five terraces there are a total of four hundred and thirty-six Buddha statues, each of which is life-size human figure. The entire five-tiered structure is topped with three round terraces, on which hollow stupas with slotted holes in the walls are located along concentric circles (ill. 168). Each of them also contains a Buddha statue; There are seventy-two such stupas with statues in total. In the center of the uppermost terrace there is a large stupa, crowning the entire structure (ill. 169 6). Steep stairs along the four axes of the pyramid, cutting the walls of the terraces, lead to its top.

The complex stepped plan of Borobudur, the abundance of architectural forms difficult to perceive by the eye, countless statues and endless narrative reliefs with a variety of compositions, carved ornaments covering the planes of the walls - all this produces a truly stunning impression. But behind this abundance and diversity of architectural and sculptural Elements lies the strict unity of the general concept, which is comprehended as a result of a consistent change in various aspects of perception.

At the beginning of the review, when the viewer sees the entire monument from the plain, the huge stone hill seems to be a living and breathing mass, from which, as if before the viewer’s eyes, countless images and forms are born and arise. The main architectural divisions of the monument are hidden here, since the horizontal lines of the terraces are lost behind the countless needles of decorative stupas and niches with statues crowning them. When the viewer then enters the confines of the structure itself, he finds himself, as it were, isolated in the walks around its terraces, and his attention is entirely directed to the relief friezes placed on the walls of the walks. Following the course of their narrative, the viewer gradually rises higher and higher from terrace to terrace until he finds himself at the top of the step pyramid. II here, after a long layering of various artistic impressions, the process of comprehending the general concept of the monumental structure is completed. Only now can the viewer grasp it as a whole, understand the logic of its plan, the relationship of its masses. Here there is a clear contrast between the stepped polygons of the lower terraces, abundantly saturated with complex architectural and sculptural forms, and the completely smooth planes of the three upper round terraces with their triple ring of slotted stupas, among which the bell-shaped massif of the large central stupa grows so organically.

As researchers convincingly prove, the original design of the monument was different: above the five lower terraces there should have been several more tiers of the same square terraces, ending with the building of a cruciform temple with entrance portals on all four sides. In this case, Borobudur would be a gigantic resemblance to the four-portal chandis placed on stepped bases; The silhouette of the monument would have been different, its pyramidal shape would have been more clearly expressed. During the construction process, however, it turned out that the soil was too weak to withstand the weight of such a huge structure, which is why it was necessary to abandon this bold plan and, without bringing the building to the originally planned height, crown it with a lighter triple ring of stupas. Nevertheless, even in its final form, the monument has a unity of plan and volumetric design, as well as a striking integrity of figurative design.

Obviously, here too the compositional solution of the building, based on a comparison of various geometric shapes in plan, carries a certain symbolic idea. This idea cannot yet be considered solved, since all interpretations are controversial. However, the fact that during the construction process the creators of Borobudur, showing exceptional artistic flexibility, were able to make serious changes to the original project, indicates that cult symbolism was not an unshakable dogma for them. Borobudur also represents the highest example of the synthesis of architecture and sculpture in Indonesian art. We do not have a sufficient idea of ​​the history of earlier Javanese sculpture: we know of works mainly from the second half of the 8th century, which - like Borobudur - are an indicator of the full maturity of Indonesian sculpture. The unprecedented scope of Borobu-dura's sculptural works is evidenced by the many hundreds of Buddha statues placed on the ridges of the terraces. The example of Borobudur shows how cultic instructions sometimes led to exorbitant artistic extravagance. It has already been indicated above that seventy-two statues of Buddha are placed under the carved stupas on the upper round terraces. These statues remain practically invisible: they can barely be seen only by bringing your eyes close to the narrow openings in the walls of the stupas. II, nevertheless, these sculptures, almost inaccessible to the viewer’s eye, are made with the usual care and represent monuments of high artistic skill.

The countless Buddha statues of the Borobudur temple are marked by features of compositional and stylistic uniformity (ill. 170, 171). In all cases the Buddha is represented naked, sitting cross-legged; only minor changes in the position of the hands, preestablished by religious canons, indicate different incarnations of the deity. These canons, like the external type of Buddha himself, are close to Indian prototypes, but here they receive a different interpretation. In the Borobudur statues, the deity’s emphasized detachment from the real world gave way to a sense of inner balance and deep peace. The rigor of their compositional construction is tempered by a more lively sense of plastic masses and the rough texture of the porous sandstone from which the statues are made.

Back in to a greater extent The relief compositions around the terraces, the total length of which is more than five kilometers, are amazing in their scale. Of course, not all compositions are equal in their artistic quality, but the best of them belong to outstanding works Javanese sculpture from the Shailendra era.

In terms of their figurative features, the reliefs of Borobudur correspond to that Stage of historical and artistic development, which in India is characterized by sculpture of the post-Gupta period (7-8 centuries). We find here similar features of the pictorial system, the same iconography of deities and, finally, similarities in technical techniques. But at the same time, the differences in figurative and stylistic nature are completely obvious. In contrast to the dramatic works of Indian masters based on strong emotional contrasts - such as, for example, the cycle of reliefs in the temples of Elura, Elephanta and Mamallapuram, the Javanese masters are dominated by a single emotional tone of calm harmony, a feeling of serenity and happy fullness of being. These features of worldview are reflected in the visual techniques of the best reliefs of Borobudur. Their distinguishing feature- calm simplicity of compositional structure, architectural clarity; with ideal generalization and inevitable features of convention - greater plethora of images, sensory-tactile transmission of the plasticity of the human body. The relief images of Borobudur are devoid of extremes, often characteristic of the images of Indian art, sometimes hieratic and conventional, sometimes of an exaggerated sensual nature. They also do not contain the stormy dynamics of Indian samples, sharp large-scale contrasts, or free, sometimes broken compositions. In this sense, the plastic images of Borobudur are the most “classical” among the art monuments of all countries of Southeast Asia.

The reliefs of Borobudur tell the story of the earthly life of Buddha. Endlessly stretching friezes consistently depict various stages of his earthly existence and other episodes from Buddhist legends and traditions, however, the dogmatic side of legends in many cases is often only a kind of reason for embodying images of reality. The themes of the Borobudur reliefs include real life in many of its manifestations. Their action takes place not in the sky-high heights, but on earth - this is the life of the royal court and nobility, peasants and hunters, sailors and Buddhist monks. Only the Buddha himself is depicted in strictly canonical forms; the less significant deities of the Buddhist pantheon differ little in character from the images of people, who essentially occupy the main place in the compositions. Equally indicative is the passion of the Borobudur masters for showing the real environment surrounding a person: architecture, vegetation, and everyday details are depicted in great detail. These images, of course, are still conventional, but the very fact of their introduction into relief compositions is very important. The feeling of the real environment does not leave Javanese sculptors. It is no coincidence that Javanese artists are attracted to the narrative element, a kind of living story, in contrast to Indian masters, who usually focus their attention on the climax of events and on images of a symbolic nature.

The characteristic features of the relief sculpture of Borobudur can be illustrated by several episodes. Thus, a composition reproducing a seemingly purely ritual episode - the sacred ablution of a bodisattva - turns into an image full of captivating poetry (ill. 172). In the center is the body satva himself; his yogis are immersed in the flowing stream; his body appears naked under a transparent chiton. The sons of the gods scatter sandalwood powder and flowers over the water as a sign of veneration. The soft curve of the figure of the bodisattva, the smooth repetitions formed by the contours of the figures of flying deities, the stamp of thoughtfulness that marks the faces of reverently bowed witnesses to this event, impart a shade of great lyrical feeling to the composition.

Even more free of cultic overtones is the so-called “Scene at the Well,” where the bodysattva Sudhana is depicted talking with one of the women who came to the well for water. The bodisattva himself is placed not even in the center of the composition, but to the side; Leaning his hand on his knee, he sits on the steps of the stairs, teaching the woman sitting in front of him on the ground. On the opposite side of the relief is a fairly accurate depiction of a temple, a typical Javanese chandi. The central part of the composition is occupied by two amazingly beautiful groups of young women located on both sides of the well. Each of the figures is an example of high plastic perfection. Close to each other in rhythm, slender and graceful, they are distinguished by individual motives of movement: some of the girls hold empty vessels in their hands, others are depicted carrying filled jugs on their heads. In this composition the feeling of happy fullness of life was expressed most clearly; it is expressed not only by the living, tangible plasticity of the figures, but is also diffused throughout their entire environment, manifesting itself in every detail. Thus, a tree hung with fruits placed in the very center of the relief is perceived as an image of beautiful and fruitful nature.

Finally, there are relief compositions in which the iconic shade completely disappears. These include, for example, a relief depicting the arrival of sailors (ill. 172). Part of the relief is occupied by a ship rushing through the waves with sails stretched by the wind; his depiction, through the authenticity of its details, reminds the viewer that Indonesia was a country of distinguished sailors. Another part of the relief shows how travelers who came ashore, kneeling, accepted gifts from the peasant family who met them. The images of the peasant, his wife and the teenage boy - their Malay ethnic type, the details of their costume - are depicted with great precision, as is the characteristic rural building visible on the left on pillars; On the roof, her master depicted kissing doves. Such a desire for authenticity is very uniquely combined in reliefs with traditional conventions, manifested, for example, in the depiction of trees. Their spread out crowns are of an ornamental and decorative nature, but at the same time the artist carefully reproduces the shape of the leaves and fruits, accurately depicting the type of tree.

In the art of Southeast Asia of the first millennium AD. e. Borobudur occupies a special place. There is no other monument that could be compared with it in scale, in the type of structure itself, in the nature of the principles of synthesis of architecture and sculpture implemented in it. Even India does not know such buildings. This monument alone, the construction of which required the labor of huge masses of people, high technical organization and, finally, a colossal number of talented artists and experienced craftsmen, gives an idea of ​​​​the state power and the height of the artistic culture of the Indonesian state of Srivijaya.

The best examples of statuary sculpture from the period of the Shai-Lendra dynasty include the Buddha statue from the Mendut chandi. Extremely strict in its compositional structure, seemingly extremely generalized in its modeling, this majestic sculpture is nevertheless distinguished by the special fullness of its plastic masses, which imparts to the image something of the vital plethora of the works of relief sculpture of this time.

An exceptional monument in its artistic height is the portrait head of a Javanese prince, originating from the Chandi Sevu, represented in the image of a Buddhist deity (ill. 165). In Java, there was a custom of intravital and mainly posthumous images of rulers in the images of Buddhist and Brahmanic deities. In this case, the prince is depicted as one of the incarnations of Buddha, with a shaved head, and this motif is skillfully used by the sculptor in figurative and plastic terms. The unusually compact volume, the exceptionally keen sense of constructive structure, the greater than usual severity of the sculptural masses - all this is in accordance with the feeling of spiritual composure that forms the basis of the figurative content of this work. These qualities are perceived not as a conventional Buddhist scheme of internal self-deepening, but as real traits of human character, which is why this work is immediately, with all the ideality of the type and the generality of the plastic language, perceived as a portrait, and not as a monument of cult purpose. The sculptor's skill is amazing: there is not a single line in this head - it is built on subtle transitions of plastic forms, the subtlest nuances of which are enriched by the roughness of the porous stone, giving the chiaroscuro a soft, slightly shimmering character.

The next stage in the history of Indonesian art is associated with the period of liberation of Java from the rule of the Shailendra dynasty and the emergence of the Central Javanese state of Mataram, which existed from 860 to 915. The state of Mataram was close to the kingdom of Srivijaya that preceded it, both in its economic system and in the nature of its culture. This is evidenced by the main monument of the period under review - created at the end of the 9th century. the temple complex of Loro Jonggrang in Prambanam, now mostly in ruins. Hinduism became the dominant religion during this period, and Loro Jonggrang Temple is known as the largest Hindu religious building in Java. The entire ensemble consisted of eight temples located on high terraces and surrounded by small temples and two concentric quadrangles of walls. The three largest temples, located in the central part of the complex, are dedicated to Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva; the largest of them is the Shiva temple. It is a cruciform temple, standing on a stepped pyramid-shaped base with stairs in the middle of each of its three sides leading to the three portals of the temple. A statue of Shiva is placed inside the temple cella. The terraces of the three main temples are decorated with relief compositions depicting episodes from the Ramayana and the Tale of Krishna.

The general pictorial principles of the reliefs of the Loro Jonggrang temples are close to the reliefs of Borobudur. These are also frieze compositions with strongly expressed narrative elements. The same great attention is paid to the real environment surrounding the heroes; the very types of characters, especially episodic ones, their attire, features of the life of the royal court are shown here, perhaps, with even greater specificity than in Borobudur. Vegetation - trees, shrubs - is depicted more lively and less subordinated to the ornamental scheme; there is an abundance of animals and birds everywhere. At the same time, symbolic compositions are found here more often than in the reliefs of Borobudur. The reliefs of the Shiva temple are also characterized by the sensual plethora of images characteristic of Javanese art, but with a touch of greater sophistication: the emphasized grace of the contours of naked female figures is striking; in their movements, conventional grandeur often gives way to vital observation. The general spirit of the relief compositions is also somewhat different: the features of drama, internal excitement, and dynamics are more noticeable here; contemplation was replaced by activity, peace by movement; in the visual arts, strict architectonics give way to picturesqueness and freer dynamic structures. If in Borobudur the frieze was divided into a number of complete compositions with the help of ornamental frames, then the relief frieze of the Shiva temple is a continuous flow of figures, acquiring a particularly rapid character in individual sections. The plasticity itself is freer and more energetic here.

The feeling of excitement is already evident in the three-figure scenes filling the panels of the balustrades, where the deities are depicted in a state of ecstatic dance. These traditional figures still reveal a closeness to Indian iconographic models. The multi-figure relief compositions of the main frieze are incomparably more original. Here, emotional elation is manifested in the predominant choice of dramatic situations in which the sublime and the ordinary coexist with each other, for gods and heroes are presented acting in a real life environment. These are the episodes from the Ramayana - for example, the scene of the abduction of Sita, the wife of the god Rama, by the demon Ravana, who took the form of a brahman. The evil Ravana attacks the desperately resisting Sita; a woman sitting on the floor, one of Sita’s close associates, having witnessed the abduction, throws up her hands in horror, and in this movement, as in the entire appearance of the courtier, there is a shade of purely everyday character. The dog immediately greedily eats the contents of the overturned cauldron. In the episode of the battle between Rama and the demon Kabandha (ill. 174), the viewer’s attention is attracted not by the ideally sublime images of Rama shooting from a bow and his brother Lakshmana or the huge Kabandha with a terrifying mask on his stomach, but by images, so to speak, of the earthly plane, in particular the warrior with with a wide knife, looking in amazement at Rama's feat. The rough features of his face, which is very peculiar in ethnic type, wide-eyed eyes, half-open mouth in surprise, some strange sideburns, a headdress, an awkward, squat figure - all these details, especially in contrast with the imperturbable expression of the faces and the ideal beauty of Rama and Lakshmana, testify about the artist’s great keenness of observation and his courage in juxtaposing images so different in nature.

The contrast is no less striking in the episode of Vishnu’s reincarnation, where the images of other deities, witnesses of the miracle, are juxtaposed with the hieratically conventional image of the many-armed Vishnu seated on the snake Ananta. These deities form a group of amazing beauty and lively ease; their images are distinguished by an even more vivid sense of vitality than similar images of Borobudur (ill. 175). The female deities have beautiful faces of the Malay type, full, but at the same time flexible figures, their movements are free and natural.

With great skill, the authors of the reliefs depict animals, in particular monkeys, which appear in many compositions. The very plot of the Ramayana opens up favorable opportunities for this: the leader of the monkeys, Ganuman, helped Rama in his search for Sita. Particularly impressive is the episode depicting monkeys throwing boulders into the mouths of huge fish.

Compared to the reliefs of Borobudur, the reliefs of Loro Jonggrang Temple represent the next stage in the evolution of Javanese sculpture. The classical harmony of the images of Borobudur has been largely lost in them, but they have a wider scope of reality, they have become brighter and more specific figurative characteristics, a fuller range of conveyed feelings, a freer and richer artistic language in terms of means.

The state of Mataram collapsed, probably due to some natural disaster - an earthquake or epidemic, since after 915 Central Java became depopulated. Since that time, East Java has become the main area for the development of Indonesian culture. A period of mutual struggle between the largest feudal rulers began. By the middle of the 11th century. Erlanga> one of these rulers, gathered most of the island under his rule. Having also captured significant territories outside of Java, he created a strong state. This state collapsed immediately after the death of Erlangi himself (he ruled from 1019 to 1042), and a period of feudal civil strife began again, which lasted until the beginning of the 14th century. By this time, one of the Javanese principalities, Majapahit, gradually strengthened and captured most of Java, as well as other areas of the Malay Archipelago. The Majapahit state retained its power for two centuries. In the 16th century As a result of the separatist struggle of its principalities, mainly Muslim (Islam began to penetrate the Sunda Islands in the 14th century), the Majapahit state collapsed, and separate Muslim principalities were formed in Java. In the same 16th century, the Portuguese appeared on the islands of the Malay Archipelago, who soon established their trade hegemony in this region of Southeast Asia. From the end of the 16th century. The Dutch began to penetrate the archipelago, ousting the Portuguese and subsequently turning Indonesia into their colony.

History of Indonesian art 10-15 centuries. does not present such a relatively complete picture as in previous centuries. The internecine struggle between individual principalities that lasted for centuries, the emergence of centralized states and their collapse, wars with neighboring countries - all these events affected the cultural development of Indonesia. For architecture and fine arts, the successful development of which in a feudal society required the expenditure of great labor and resources, as well as continuous succession artistic tradition, the conditions turned out to be less favorable in this sense; in the 10th-15th centuries. In Indonesia, monuments of such magnitude and grandeur were not created as in the first millennium. It is also obvious that a considerable number of works were destroyed and have not survived to our time. Hence the fragmentation of our information about this art, the scattered nature of the monuments themselves. Nevertheless, even during this period the cultural development of the country was not stopped. From the 11th century The rise of Indonesian literature begins. Sanskrit has lost its position in the literary language; The Javanese Kawi language became the language of Epic poetry. Javanese translations of Indian epics date back to the reign of Erlang. At the same time, the famous wayang, the Javanese shadow theater, apparently arose.

Architecture and fine arts largely acquired the conditions for their rise in the 14th and 15th centuries, during the rise of the Majapahit state. In terms of its scale, this state can be compared with the kingdom of Srivijaya. The scope of the Majapahit merchant fleet extended from the coast of Africa to China. Wide international connections gave their imprint to the art of the Majapahit period, in which, along with features of closeness to the art of India, some elements dating back to the art of China are captured.

Temple architecture of the 10th - 15th centuries does not reach the scale of religious buildings of the 8th - 9th centuries. The type of small temple, the chandi, again becomes predominant. To the best architectural monuments of East Java of the 10th century. refers to the Shaivist Chandi Jabang. Relatively small in size, it invites comparison with the Central Javanese chandi of the 7th - 8th centuries. Chandi Jabang attracts attention due to the uniqueness of its type. Instead of the previous cubic cella and the general balance of volumes, we see here a round volume elongated vertically, installed on a high, cross-shaped base in plan. The rapid rise of a slender cella raised on a steep multi-tiered pedestal, the combination of its curved surfaces with unusually plastically inscribed strict rectangular portals on four sides, the contrasts of smooth staves with multi-layered profiles of the plinth and cornice - everything here reveals a sense of the dynamics of the architectural image, unknown to the architects of previous ones centuries. This building also stands out for its sophisticated artistry of design and execution, beauty and sophistication of proportions - both in the overall silhouette and in the consonances and contrasts of individual motifs and forms. Without overload, without excessive detailing, the impression of great richness of the architectural image is created. Ornamental and decorative elements are used sparingly but extremely effectively, in particular large demon masks above the portals. Chandi Jabang has no analogues in Indian architecture of this period; on the contrary, it rather opposes it with a clearly expressed rational basis artistic image, which is perceived as a natural result of the development of the characteristic features of Javanese architecture of the 7th - 8th centuries.

Another type of architectural structures of the period under review were princely tombs erected on the slopes of mountains with pools decorated with sculptures, intended for ritual ablutions. The most interesting monument of this time is a sculptural group from the pool at the tomb of Erlangi in Belakhana, depicting Erlangu himself in the guise of the god Vishnu. This work is characterized by a peculiar mixture of cult and secular elements. Erlanga is represented as a four-armed deity, seated in the canonically established pose on the giant mythical bird Garuda. The fantastic appearance of Garuda with his bestial muzzle and widely spread wings, writhing snakes, and a complex frame around the figure of the deity are designed to introduce features of intimidation and inaccessible greatness into the image of the ruler. However, the face of the deity is interpreted with an unexpected portraiture, essentially contradicting the conventions of the general design and the pompous decorativeness of the entire composition. The appearance of the ruler is reproduced with unvarnished truthfulness - his somewhat puffy face with a drooping forehead and a wide flat nose, even the expression of strength and willpower is conveyed. In the sense of conveying the specific characteristics of an individual individual, Erlanga's image is superior to previous images of rulers.

The last major monument of Hindu architecture, the Panataran temple complex, dates back to the Majapahit period. Unlike the Central Javanese temples of the 8th and 9th centuries, the Nanataran ensemble was not built according to a single plan; its constituent buildings were erected at different times, during the 14th and first half of the 15th century. The complex does not constitute an integral planning system; There is no strict axial arrangement of buildings - the principle of free placement of buildings has become dominant. From the main temple, only the basement, decorated with reliefs on scenes from the Ramayana and The Tale of Krishna, has survived.

One of the small Panataran temples, dating back to 1369, which has come down to us intact (Fig. 176), testifies to new features characteristic of the architecture of the Majapahit period. This is a square building with an emphasized vertical silhouette. Above the small cella, decorated on four sides with strict portals with traditional lush and decorative masks of demons and topped with a very strongly extended cornice, rises a high multi-stage roof, forming an unusual hip-shaped silhouette. The cella, thus, turns out to be narrower and lower than the roof, which violates the principles of tectonic balance. Therefore, although the architectural forms of the temple themselves are distinguished by purely Javanese strictness of lines, and the creeping carved ornament does not destroy the plane anywhere, the building no longer produces the impression of clear architectural logic and harmony of forms, and in general the temple is devoid of the sense of tectonic regularity inherent in the best Javanese buildings. In the emphatically vertical design of the volume, in the multi-tiered roof, each protrusion of which is decorated at the corners with a carved acroteria, making the corners of the tiers seem to bend upward - these features may reflect the influence of examples of Chinese architecture, in particular multi-tiered pagodas, reinterpreted, however, in their own way okay

The type of temple building developed in the Panataran complex with a small cella and a high covering was preserved for many centuries - right up to the 18th century. - on the island of Bali, which remained the center of Hindu culture in Indonesia after the establishment of the rule of Islam.

In the sculpture of the Majapahit period, internal contradictions are revealed even more clearly. There are several different trends that can be identified here. The most conservative of them is represented by the famous statue of the goddess of supreme wisdom Prajnaparamita from the Leiden Museum (13th -14th centuries) (ill. 177). The goddess is depicted as a bodisattva in strict adherence to all forms of the Buddhist canon. In this work we discover a subtle revelation of the image in its own way, however, neither the sophistication of the silhouette, nor the beautiful drawing of the face, as well as other signs of the sculptor’s undoubted skill, can hide the absence of that radiation in this image vitality, which distinguished earlier works of Javanese statuary and relief sculpture.

Another line of Indonesian plastic art is characterized by works in which the whimsicality and fantasy of the image are complemented by an original compositional structure and the widespread use of ornamental and decorative adornments. These include numerous statues of the elephant-shaped deity Ganesha, such as the Ganesha statue at Bar (13th century). Similar trends are found in the sculptural group depicting the victorious struggle of the goddess Durga, the wife of the god Shiva, with the buffalo-shaped demon Mahisha (ill. 178). Despite all the conventionality and angular lapidary nature of the images, there is a dramatic element in this sculpture, and the modeling of the figures is distinguished by great energy. Durga's robe is completely covered with ornaments, and the composition of the group itself, skillfully deployed in a plane, produces a certain decorative effect.

The greatest degree of departure from convention and approach to nature is found in the third direction of Javanese sculpture of the period under review. It is represented mainly by sculptures decorating ritual pools at the tombs of rulers. So, for example, two figures of young women with jugs originating from Mojokerto (now in the museum in Jakarta) (ill. 179) give the impression of complete freedom from the traditional ideal canon, both in the reliable rendering of the Malay type of their faces, characteristic hairstyle, and in the spontaneity of the plastic motif, pose, movements. The artist’s great powers of observation and his inherent real sense of life were revealed in the animated faces and slightly exaggerated angular movements.

Finally, the reliefs from the Panataran temple form their own special line. They mean, in essence, a complete rejection of the figurative system and artistic language developed in Indonesian art as a result of consistent centuries-long development. One of these reliefs, depicting Sita, the wife of Rama, grieving in captivity, with her maidservant, attracts attention with its conventionality. This is a flat openwork stone carving, where figures with distorted proportions and exaggerated gestures are endowed with both schematic and grotesque features, and plants and household items have turned into a kind of ornamental signs. The former plastic expressiveness of volumes gave way to a graphic effect - the ratio of light and dark spots, the expressiveness of angular contours. The pictorial techniques of such reliefs, as well as the nature of the images themselves, are reminiscent of figures from wayang - Javanese shadow theater, and, like wayang itself, reflect the influence of Far Eastern art.

Subsequently, with the establishment of the rule of Islam, which prohibited images, opportunities for the fruitful development of sculpture disappeared in Indonesia. Only on the island of Bali were the old artistic traditions preserved, but even here there were no conditions for them to truly creative continuation. The process of primitivization, which began in the Majapahit period, also affects the art of Bali. The impossibility of developing the classical artistic tradition within the framework of the restrictive regulations of Islam, and then under the conditions of cruel colonial oppression, led to the fact that the main achievements in Indonesian art of subsequent centuries are found mainly in the field of folk crafts.

Those who are planning to visit will be interested in its traditions and customs, and the cultural characteristics of the state. Indonesia is a multinational country, so we should rather talk about multiculture. The culture of Indonesia has been greatly influenced by the religions professed by its population - alternately Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam. Also, influences from outside – China, India, European countries, who were the “owners” of these territories during the period of colonial paganism (mainly Holland and Portugal).

Behavioral and linguistic culture

The modern culture of behavior and traditions of Indonesia were formed mainly under the influence of Islam, which is the dominant religion in the country. In addition, the following concepts are very important for Indonesians:

• gotong royong - readiness to come to the aid of those who need it;
• musyawarah – discussion, exchange of opinions;
• mufakat - agreement that is reached after an exchange of views on important issues.

About 250 languages ​​are spoken in the archipelago, mostly belonging to the Malayo-Polynesian group. The official language in the archipelago is Indonesian; it was formed on the basis of Malay, but it also contains a large number of foreign words - Dutch, Portuguese, Indian, etc.

Art

Religions also influenced the art of Indonesia:

Folk crafts

One of the main types of folk art is batik, the culture of which came here from India, but later developed and received national characteristics. Among the traditional products of the peoples of Indonesia, the following should also be mentioned:

Kitchen

The gastronomic culture of Indonesia was also formed under the influence of other countries, primarily China. Many dishes here are borrowed from Chinese cuisine; some of them remained unchanged, others acquired a national flavor. But in Indonesia, as in the Middle Kingdom, the main product is rice.