Literary movements romanticism sentimentalism realism. Literary movements and trends: classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, modernism (symbolism, acmeism, futurism). Understanding past eras

Literary method, style, or literary movement are often treated as synonyms. It is based on a similar type of artistic thinking among different writers. Sometimes a modern author does not realize in which direction he is working and evaluates it creative method literary scholar or critic. And it turns out that the author is a sentimentalist or an Acmeist... We present to your attention the literary movements in the table from classicism to modernity.

There have been cases in the history of literature when representatives of the writing fraternity themselves realized theoretical foundations their activities, propagated them in manifestos, united in creative groups. For example, Russian futurists who published the manifesto “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste” in print.

Today we are talking about the established system of literary trends of the past, which determined the features of the development of the world literary process, and studied by literary theory. The main literary trends are:

• classicism
• sentimentalism
• romanticism
• realism
• modernism (divided into movements: symbolism, acmeism, futurism, imagism)
• socialist realism
• postmodernism

Modernity is most often associated with the concept of postmodernism, and sometimes socially active realism.

Literary trends in tables

	Classicism	Sentimentalism	Romanticism	Realism	Modernism
Periodization	literary direction XVII – early XIX centuries, based on imitation of ancient models.	Literary direction second half of the XVIII– beginning of the 19th century. From French word“Sentiment” - feeling, sensitivity.	literary movements of the late XVIII - second half of the 19th century V. Romanticism emerged in the 1790s. first in Germany and then spread throughout the Western European cultural region Greatest development received in England, Germany, France (J. Byron, W. Scott, V. Hugo, P. Merimee)	direction in literature and art of the 19th century century, aiming at a truthful reproduction of reality in its typical features.	literary direction, aesthetic concept, formed in the 1910s. The founders of modernism: M. Proust “In Search of Lost Time”, J. Joyce “Ulysses”, F. Kafka “The Trial”.
Signs, features	They are clearly divided into positive and negative. At the end of a classic comedy, vice is always punished and good triumphs. The principle of three unities: time (the action lasts no more than a day), place, action.	Particular attention to peace of mind person. The main thing is the feeling, the experience common man, not great ideas. Characteristic genres are elegy, epistle, novel in letters, diary, in which confessional motives predominate.	Heroes are bright, exceptional individuals in unusual circumstances. Romanticism is characterized by impulse, extraordinary complexity, and the inner depth of human individuality. For romantic work The idea of ​​two worlds is characteristic: the world in which the hero lives, and another world in which he wants to be.	Reality is a means for a person to understand himself and the world around him. Typification of images. This is achieved through the truthfulness of details in specific conditions. Even in the face of tragic conflict, art is life-affirming. Realism is characterized by the desire to consider reality in development, the ability to detect the development of new social, psychological and public relations.	The main task of modernism is to penetrate into the depths of a person’s consciousness and subconscious, to convey the work of memory, the peculiarities of perception of the environment, in how the past, present are refracted in “moments of existence” and the future is foreseen. The main technique in the work of modernists is the “stream of consciousness,” which allows one to capture the movement of thoughts, impressions, and feelings.
Features of development in Russia	An example is Fonvizin’s comedy “The Minor.” In this comedy, Fonvizin tries to implement main idea classicism - to re-educate the world with rational words.	An example is the story by N.M. Karamzin " Poor Lisa", which, in contrast to rational classicism with its cult of reason, affirms the cult of feelings, sensuality.	In Russia, romanticism arose against the backdrop of national upsurge after the War of 1812. It has a pronounced social orientation. He is imbued with the idea of ​​civil service and love of freedom (K. F. Ryleev, V. A. Zhukovsky).	In Russia, the foundations of realism were laid in the 1820s - 30s. works of Pushkin (“Eugene Onegin”, “Boris Godunov” Captain's daughter", late lyrics). this stage is associated with the names of I. A. Goncharov, I. S. Turgenev, N. A. Nekrasov, A. N. Ostrovsky and others. Realism of the 19th century is usually called “critical”, since the determining principle in it was precisely the social critical.	In Russian literary criticism, it is customary to call 3 literary movements that made themselves known in the period from 1890 to 1917 modernist. These are symbolism, acmeism and futurism, which formed the basis of modernism as a literary movement.

Modernism is represented by the following literary movements:

• Symbolism

  (Symbol - from the Greek Symbolon - conventional sign)
  1. The central place is given to the symbol*
  2. The desire for a higher ideal prevails
  3. A poetic image is intended to express the essence of a phenomenon
  4. Characteristic reflection of the world in two planes: real and mystical
  5. Sophistication and musicality of verse
  The founder was D. S. Merezhkovsky, who in 1892 gave a lecture “On the causes of the decline and on new trends in modern Russian literature” (article published in 1893). Symbolists are divided into older ones ((V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, D. Merezhkovsky, 3. Gippius, F. Sologub made their debut in the 1890s) and younger ones (A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach. Ivanov and others made their debut in the 1900s)

• Acmeism

  (From the Greek “acme” - point, highest point). The literary movement of Acmeism arose in the early 1910s and was genetically connected with symbolism. (N. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova, S. Gorodetsky, O. Mandelstam, M. Zenkevich and V. Narbut.) The formation was influenced by M. Kuzmin’s article “On Beautiful Clarity,” published in 1910. In a programmatic article in 1913, “The Legacy of Acmeism and Symbolism,” N. Gumilyov called symbolism a “worthy father,” but emphasized that the new generation had developed a “courageously firm and clear outlook on life.”
  1. Focus on classical poetry of the 19th century
  2. Acceptance of the earthly world in its diversity and visible concreteness
  3. Objectivity and clarity of images, precision of details
  4. In rhythm, the Acmeists used dolnik (Dolnik is a violation of the traditional
  regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. The lines coincide in the number of stresses, but stressed and unstressed syllables are freely located in the line.), which brings the poem closer to living colloquial speech

• Futurism

  Futurism - from lat. futurum, future. Genetically, literary futurism is closely connected with the avant-garde groups of artists of the 1910s - primarily with the groups “Jack of Diamonds”, “Donkey’s Tail”, “Youth Union”. In 1909 in Italy, the poet F. Marinetti published the article “Manifesto of Futurism.” In 1912, the manifesto “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste” was created by Russian futurists: V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh, V. Khlebnikov: “Pushkin is more incomprehensible than hieroglyphs.” Futurism began to disintegrate already in 1915-1916.
  1. Rebellion, anarchic worldview
  2. Denial of cultural traditions
  3. Experiments in the field of rhythm and rhyme, figurative arrangement of stanzas and lines
  4. Active word creation

• Imagism

  From lat. imago - image A literary movement in Russian poetry of the 20th century, whose representatives stated that the purpose of creativity is to create an image. Basics means of expression Imagists - metaphor, often metaphorical chains that compare various elements of two images - direct and figurative. Imagism arose in 1918, when the “Order of Imagists” was founded in Moscow. The creators of the “Order” were Anatoly Mariengof, Vadim Shershenevich and Sergei Yesenin, who was previously part of the group of new peasant poets

	Examples of low genres
	Comedy, fable, epigram, satire (comedies by J.-B. Moliere “Tartuffe”, “The Bourgeois in the Nobility”, “The Imaginary Invalid”, etc., fables by J. Lafontaine)	Comedy, fable, epigram, satire (comedies by D. I. Fonvizin “The Minor”, ​​“Brigadier”, fables by I. A. Krylov)
Topics and tasks	The comedy depicts the life of “ordinary” people: townspeople, servants. Shown human vices, which are always overcome by virtue, the language of comedy and fables is “lowered”, ordinary. The task of a comedian and fabulist is to expose and ridicule vice, establish virtue, lead the viewer-reader to a clear conclusion, and formulate a “moral”

Sentimentalism

Sentimentalism (from the French sentiment - feeling) is a movement in the literature and art of Europe and Russia in the second half of the 18th century, characterized by an increased interest in human feelings and a heightened emotional attitude towards the world around us. The innovation of sentimentalism lies in its exclusive attention to state of mind personality and appeal to the experiences of a simple, ignorant person. Works written within this artistic movement focus on the reader's perception, that is, on the sensitivity that arises when reading them. The hero in sentimentalism is individualized, his inner world enriched by the ability to empathize and sensitively respond to what is happening around.

emergence	Formed in the second half of the 18th century in England, then spread throughout Europe	Formed in the second half of the 18th - first quarter of the 19th century
Historical circumstances contributing to the emergence	Appearance sentimentalism is associated with the Enlightenment, it reflected the growth of democratic sentiments in society	The emergence and development of sentimentalism in Russia is associated with the penetration and spread of Enlightenment ideas in Russian society
Main features	attention is paid to the spiritual world of a person, feelings come first, not great ideas; the world is reflected from the position of feeling, not reason;

Main features	sentimentalism is characterized by a cult privacy, rural existence and even primitiveness and savagery; the main character of sentimentalism becomes a “natural” person; vocabulary characteristic of colloquial speech is used; interest in folklore as a form of the most direct manifestation of feelings; the hero can commit both bad and good deeds, experience both noble and base feelings; absence of rigid aesthetic canons and forms
Writers and works	L. Stern “Sentimental Journey”, J. Thomson “Winter”, “Summer”, T. Gray “Rural Cemetery”, S. Richardson “Pamela”, “Clarissa Garlot”, “Sir Charles Grandison” France: Abbot Prevost “Manon Lescaut”, J.-J. Rousseau "Julia, or the New Heloise"	N. M. Karamzin “Poor Liza”, “Letters of a Russian Traveler”, A. N. Radishchev “Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow”
	Travel novel

Romanticism

Romanticism (from the French gotanIvte (medieval French Iotanb) - novel) is an ideological and artistic movement in European and American culture of the late 18th century - the first half of the 19th century. It is characterized by an affirmation of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the depiction of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature. It has spread to various spheres of human activity. In the 18th century, everything strange, fantastic, picturesque and existing in books and not in reality was called romantic. At the beginning

Before talking about specific ones, you first need to learn about literary trends. They represent the historical embodiment of artistic knowledge and reproduction of the world, manifested in the ideological and aesthetic community of a group of writers.

In the history of literature, classicism, sentimentalism, romanticism, realism, modernism and postmodernism are distinguished.

A literary direction is a special synthesis of the way of understanding reality through art and the individual style of the creator. Any literary movement includes a collection of works that have common features. Within a literary period, several literary movements may appear, for example, in the Age of Enlightenment - classicism and sentimentalism, as well as rococo. The name of the dominant movement often becomes the name of an entire period in literature, and its time frame may extend beyond clear limits. Literary directions may form movements or schools.

Periodization of the main literary trends:

1. classicism (XVIII – early XIX centuries);
2. sentimentalism (second half of the 18th – early 19th centuries);
3. romanticism (second half of the 18th – early 20th centuries);
4. realism (second half of the 19th century);
5. modernism ( late XIX– XX centuries): impressionism, symbolism, futurism, acmeism, expressionism, surrealism, existentialism, etc.;
6. postmodernism (since the 1980s of the 20th century).

Literary directions	Main features of a literary movement	Representatives of literature
Classicism	A guide to the aesthetics of ancient art. The undeniable priority of reason over feelings is affirmed. The authors proclaim the principle of rationalism: art should be reasonable and logically verified. The fleeting is rejected, the essential properties of things are emphasized. The civil themes in the work are shaped in strict creative norms according to the canonical model.	G. Derzhavin, M. Lomonosov, V. Trediakovsky, I. Krylov, D. Fonvizin
Sentimentalism	Instead of the severity of classicism, feeling is glorified here as an essential sign of human nature. The hero (sometimes the heroine) is not afraid to feel and reveal to the reader his emotional world, which is diverse and changeable. It is recognized that regardless of his class, everyone has a rich inner world.	Ya. M. Karamzin, young V.A. Zhukovsky
Romanticism	The dominant technique is romantic dual worlds. The author creates a conflict of contrasting the hero's ideal with his environment. The incompatibility of this ideal and reality is realized in the departure into the world of traditions and legends, dreams, fantasies, and exotic countries. Personality concerns romantics in light of its loneliness and disappointment. The hero is haunted by the understanding of the tragedy of life, at the same time he expresses the rebellion of the spirit.	A. S. Pushkin. M. Yu. Lermontov, V.A. Zhukovsky, F.I. Tyutchev, M. Gorky,
	Emphasis on literature as a means of understanding the world. Its ability to objectively reflect reality increases. The subject of artistic research is the relationship between character and circumstances; the authors show the formation of character under the influence of the environment. However, the ability to fight and defend the right to self-determination with the will is not canceled. Reality is shown in constant development, presenting the typical in a unique and individual embodiment.	I. S. Turgenev, L. N. Tolstoy, N. A. Nekrasov, F. M. Dostoevsky, I. A. Bunin, A. I. Kuprin
Critical Realism	Branch throughout the 19th century. It bears the main signs of realism, but is distinguished by a deeper, always critical, even sarcastic author's view	N. V. Gogol, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin
Modernism	Unites many movements and schools with different aesthetic concepts. One thing in common is the rejection of realism and a strict connection between characters and circumstances. At the forefront is the self-worth of the individual and its self-sufficiency. Causes and effects tire and are overthrown as unnecessary.
Symbolism	The first significant modernist movement. The origins of the movement are in romanticism with its duality. Having refused to understand the world, symbolists construct it. Particular emphasis on subconscious contemplation, knowledge of the secret contained in symbols.	V. Bryusov, D. Merezhkovsky, 3. Gippius, F. Sologub, A. Blok, V. Ivanov, L. Andreev, A. Bely,
	A reaction to the imperfection of symbolism, its persistent idea of ​​​​perceiving reality as a parody of higher beings. Acme students master a diverse outside world, proclaiming culture as the highest value. Poetry is characterized by stylistic balance, clarity of images, precise composition and details.	N. Gumilev, A. Akhmatova, S. Gorodetsky, O. Mandelstam
Futurism	The main feature of this avant-garde movement is the overthrow of the traditions of the past, the destruction of old aesthetics, and the creation of a new art of the future. The authors believed in the principle of “shift”, reflected in the lexical and syntactic renewal of the poetic language: vulgarisms, neologisms. Oxymorons...	V. Khlebnikov, I. Severyanin, V. Mayakovsky,
Postmodernism	Aesthetic and ideological pluralism gave rise to an anti-hierarchical text that denies ideological integrity and speaks of the impossibility of mastering reality using a single method or language. Writers emphasize the artificiality of their works and are not afraid to combine the stylistics of different trends, genres and eras.	A. Bitov, D. A. Prigov, Sasha Sokolov, V. Pelevin, V. Erofeev

In addition to these main areas, the following are often distinguished:

• Impressionism (the last third of the 19th century - the beginning of the 20th century), with the desire to convey the first fleeting impression, captures the focus of attention on a riot of feelings and emotions. The composition of the work is clearly fragmentary. Attention is directed not to the general, but to the specific and individual. Guy de Maupassant and M. Proust are worthy representatives of this trend.
• Expressionism (1910–1920s) combines critical pathos and horror at the cruel picture of existence. The death of man and humanity, the attraction to abstraction and the grotesque are features of some of the works of L. N. Andreev and F. K. Sologub.
• Existentialism (mid-twentieth century) gives a feeling of the collapse of all values. The tragedy of human existence is insurmountable. J. P. Sartre and A. Camus saw a lonely person in familiar society.

CLASSICISM(from Latin - first-class, exemplary) - a literary and artistic movement that originated in the Renaissance and continued its development until the first decades of the 19th century. Classicism entered the history of literature as a concept at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. Its main features were determined in accordance with the dramatic theory of the 17th century and with the main ideas of N. Boileau’s treatise “Poetic Art” (1674). Classicism was considered as a movement oriented towards ancient art. The definition of classicism emphasized, first of all, the desire for clarity and precision of expression, comparison to ancient models and strict subordination to the rules. In the era of classicism, the principles of “three unities” (“unity of time”, “unity of place”, “unity of action”) were mandatory, which became symbol three rules defining the organization of artistic time, artistic space and events in drama. Classicism owes its longevity to the fact that the writers of this movement understood their own creativity not as a way of personal self-expression, but as the norm of “true art”, addressed to the universal, unchangeable, to “beautiful nature” as a permanent category. Strict selection, harmony of composition, a set of specific themes, motives, the material of reality, which became the object of artistic reflection in the word, were for classic writers an attempt to aesthetically overcome contradictions real life. The poetry of classicism strives for clarity of meaning and simplicity of stylistic expression. Although prose genres such as aphorisms (maxims) and characters are actively developing in classicism, they are of particular importance dramatic works and the theater itself, capable of brightly and organically performing both moralizing and entertaining functions.

The collective aesthetic norm of classicism is the category of “good taste”, developed by the so-called “good society”. The taste of classicism prefers brevity to verbosity, pretentiousness and complexity of expression - clarity and simplicity, extravagant - decency. The basic law of classicism is artistic verisimilitude, which depicts things and people as they should be according to moral standards, and not as they are in reality. Characters in classicism are built on the identification of one dominant trait, which should turn them into universal human types.

The requirements put forward by classicism for simplicity and clarity of style, semantic content of images, a sense of proportion and norms in the construction, plot and plot of works still retain their aesthetic relevance.

SENTIMENTALISM(from English - sensitive; French - feeling) - one of the main trends in European literature and art XVIII century. Sentimentalism received its name after the publication of the novel “A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy” English writer L. Stern. It was in England that this trend received its most complete expression. The main focus of sentimental writers is on the life of the human heart; The external world of nature in their works is closely connected with the internal world human soul, with intense interest in the emotional sphere and experiences of an individual. The sublime principle, fundamental in the works of the theorists of classicism, in sentimentalism is replaced by the category of the touching, sympathy for one’s neighbor, an appeal to the natural behavior of a person, and a craving for virtue. In Russia, all the main works of European sentimentalists were translated back in the 18th century and enjoyed great reader success and had a significant influence on domestic writers. Russian sentimentalism reached its highest flowering in the works of N.M. Karamzin (“Poor Liza”, “Natalia, the Boyar’s Daughter”, “Letters of a Russian Traveler”, etc.), in the works of M.N. Muravyova, N.A. Lvova, V.A. Zhukovsky, I.I. Dmitrieva.

ROMANTICISM- one of the largest, expressive and aesthetically significant movements in European and American art of the late 18th - first half of the 19th centuries, which became widespread worldwide and discovered many talented artists - poets, prose writers and playwrights, painters and sculptors, actors, composers and musicians. A typical sign of romanticism is a sharp dissatisfaction with reality, a constant doubt that the life of society or the life of an individual can be built on the principles of goodness and justice. Another important feature of the romantic worldview should be the dream of renewing the world and man in defiance of reason and real facts, the desire for a sublime, most often unattainable ideal. A clear awareness of the contradiction between ideal and reality, a feeling of a gap between them and at the same time a thirst for their reunification is the defining beginning of romantic art.

Romantics have always been attracted to fantastic stories and images, folk legends, parables, fairy tales; they were interested in the unknown distant countries, life of tribes and peoples, heroic turning points historical eras, the fertile and bright world of living nature, with which they were in love. In their works, the romantics deliberately mixed high and low, tragic and comic, real and fantastic, modifying and updating old genres and creating new ones - historical novel, lyric-epic poem, story-fairy tale. They managed to bring literature closer to folklore, change existing ideas about dramatic art, and pave new paths in lyric poetry. The artistic discoveries of romanticism largely prepared the emergence of realism.

In conditions other than those of Western Europe, Russian romanticism arose and developed, becoming the main event literary life in the 1820s. His the most important signs there was less clarity of the main features and properties and a closer connection with other literary movements, primarily with classicism and sentimentalism. In the history and development of Russian romanticism, researchers usually distinguish three periods. Origin period romantic direction in Russia falls on the years 1801-1815. The founders of Russian romanticism are V.A. Zhukovsky and K.N. Batyushkov, who had a huge influence on subsequent literature. The years 1816 - 1825 became a time of intensive development of romanticism, a noticeable dissociation from classicism and sentimentalism. A striking phenomenon of this period was the prolific literary activity Decembrist writers, as well as the work of P.A. Vyazemsky, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykova, E.A. Baratynsky, A.A. Delviga. Central figure Russian romanticism becomes A.S. Pushkin. In the third period, covering 1826-1840, romanticism became most widespread in Russian literature. The crowning achievement of this direction was the work of M.Yu. Lermontov, lyrics by F.I. Tyutcheva, early works N.V. Gogol. Subsequently, the influence of romantic aesthetics affects the development of Russian literature throughout the 19th century and into the 20th century. Romantic traditions continue to this day.

REALISM(from Late Lat. - real, real) - leading literary direction XIX-XX centuries, one of the main artistic and creative principles of literature and art, focused on adequate reproduction of the surrounding reality, society as a whole and the human personality in its various manifestations in relation to reality and society. It is noteworthy that realism and its theory became a Russian prerogative. The problems of realistic art occupied a significant place in the literary and aesthetic reflections of V.G. Belinsky, N.A. Dobrolyubova, A.I. Herzen, P.V. Annenkova, F.M. Dostoevsky, D.I. Pisareva, A.V. Druzhinina, M.E. Saltykova-Shchedrina, N.V. Shelgunova, D.S. Merezhkovsky, A.V. Lunacharsky, M.M. Bakhtin, V.M. Zhirmunsky and others. In line with realism and the realistic tradition, despite the clear manifestation of certain “unrealistic” tendencies, the work of most of the classics of Russian literature of two centuries developed. Striving for a complete, from the point of view of life's truth, comprehension of reality, resorting (albeit optionally) to life-like forms, realism, of course, creates in the reader only the illusion of the depicted reality. Having emerged quite late in the history of culture as one of the leading trends, realism is experiencing constant changes and renewals, while revealing a natural “survival” in a variety of socio-historical conditions.

MODERNISM(from French - newest) - an aesthetic concept that emerged in the 1910s and rapidly developed in the 1920s-1930s. Modernism arose as a result of a revision of philosophical and aesthetic foundations and creative principles artistic culture XIX century, which took place during the years 1870-1900. This is evidenced by the history of such schools and movements as impressionism, symbolism, futurism and some others. Despite the noticeable differences in programs and manifestos, they are all united by the perception of their era as a time of irreversible changes, accompanied by the collapse of previous spiritual values. Although there is no program document that would contain the main aesthetic aspirations of modernism, the development of this trend in the culture of the West and Russia reveals the stability of its features, allowing us to talk about a certain artistic system. Various components of modernism are observed in poetry, drama, and prose.

POSTMODERNISM(from English, French, German - after the newest) - a term used in recent decades, but still not received a clear and unambiguous interpretation, the conceptual essence of which boils down to the fact that it is polysemantic and multi-level, subject to the influence of national-historical , social and other circumstances, a complex of aesthetic, philosophical, scientific and theoretical ideas, determined by the specifics of worldview, attitude and assessment of a person’s cognitive capabilities, his place and role in the world around him. The origin of this trend in literature is usually attributed to approximately the end of the Second World War, however, as a social and aesthetic phenomenon, postmodernism was recognized in Western culture and was reflected as a specific phenomenon only in the early 1980s. In its entirety, postmodernism is opposed to realism. In any case, he is trying to resist. In this regard, the concepts with which theorists operate are not accidental. this direction: “world as chaos”, “postmodern sensitivity”, “world as text”, “consciousness as text”, “intertextuality”, “crisis of authorities”, “author’s mask”, “parody mode of narration”, fragmentation of narration, meta-story etc.

Vanguard(fr. avant-garde- advanced detachment), avant-garde- a general name for movements in the world, primarily in European art, that arose in turn of the 19th century and XX centuries. The brightest representatives of avant-garde art in literature include:

· futurism - Alexey Kruchenykh, Velimir Khlebnikov, Vladimir Mayakovsky;

· expressionism - Rainer Maria Rilke, early Leonid Andreev.

Dramaturgy

The pioneer of avant-garde symbolist drama was the Belgian French-speaking playwright Maurice Maeterlinck. Following him, symbolist poetics and worldview are consolidated in the dramas of G. Hauptmann, the late G. Ibsen, L. N. Andreev, G. von Hofmannsthal. In the 20th century, avant-garde drama was enriched with the techniques of absurdist literature. In the plays of the late A. Strindberg, D. I. Kharms, V. Gombrowicz, S. I. Vitkevich, an absurd reality is depicted, the actions of the characters are often illogical. Absurdist motifs received complete expression in the works of French-speaking authors of the so-called. dramas of the absurd - E. Ionesco, S. Beckett, J. Genet, A. Adamov. Following them, absurdist motifs were developed in their dramas by F. Dürrenmatt, T. Stoppard, G. Pinter, E. Albee, M. Volokhov, V. Havel.

Classicism Literary movement of the 17th – early 19th centuries The term “classicism” translated from Latin means “exemplary” and is associated with the principles of imitation of images.

This direction is characterized by high civic themes and strict adherence to certain creative norms and rules. Classicism, as defined artistic direction, tend to reflect life in ideal images, gravitating towards a certain “norm”, models.

The author had to observe three classical unities: Unity of action - the play must have one main plot, subplots are kept to a minimum. Unity of place - the action is not transferred in space; the area, limited by the stage, corresponds to the same place in the space of the play. Unity of time - the action of the play should take (in the reality assumed by the work) no more than 24 hours.

The laws of classicism did not allow the mixing of genres, styles and narrative language. If it was an ode, then it should have been written in bookish language on the occasion of a solemn or significant event. In comedy, colloquial and even colloquial vocabulary was allowed.

Higher genres: epic; epic poem; tragedy; ode. Works of higher genres had to reflect state or historical events, the main characters could be monarchs, generals, aristocrats, as well as gods and heroes of the ancient era.

Low genres: comedy; satire; fable. These works showed daily life ordinary people.

In Russia, classicism appeared in the second quarter of the 18th century. Main high genre there was an ode in which the poets glorified the acts of Peter I, Elizabeth Petrovna, Catherine II, the victories of the Russian troops, or turned to the glorious future of Russia, which was invariably associated with the benefits of the reigning monarchs. The main low genre was the fable. Russian fables ridiculed the vices of society, but the fables were instructive in nature.

Most prominent representatives classicism in Russia were V.K. Trediakovsky, A.P. Sumarokov, M.V. Lomonosov, I.A. Krylov, D.I. Fonvizin.

Sentimentalism Literary movement of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries Dominant " human nature“Sentimentalism declared feeling, not reason, which distinguished it from classicism.

Particular attention is paid to the spiritual world of a person. The main thing is declared to be the feeling, the experience of a simple person, and not great ideas. The hero of educational literature in sentimentalism is more individualized, his inner world is enriched by the ability to empathize and sensitively respond to what is happening around him. By origin (or by conviction) the sentimentalist hero is a democrat; rich spiritual world the commoner is one of the main discoveries and conquests of sentimentalism.

The main genres of sentimentalism: story, elegy, novel, letters, travel, memoirs

Sentimentalism penetrated into Russia in the 1780s - early 1790s thanks to translations of novels, including “Werther” by J. W. Goethe. The era of Russian sentimentalism was opened by Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin with “Letters of a Russian Traveler.” His story “Poor Liza” (1792) is a masterpiece of Russian sentimental prose; from Goethe's Werther he inherited general atmosphere sensitivity, melancholy and themes of suicide.

Representatives: James Thomson, Edward Jung, Thomas Gray, Laurence Stern (England), Jean Jacques Rousseau (France), Nikolai Karamzin (Russia). In French literature sentimentalism is represented by the novels of Abbé Prevost, P. C. de Chamblen de Marivaux, J. -J. Rousseau, A. B. de Saint-Pierre. IN German literature– works by F. G. Klopstock, F. M. Klinger, J. V. Goethe, I. F. Schiller, S. Laroche.

Romanticism Literary movement of the late 18th – second half of the 19th century. A counterbalance to the previously dominant classicism with its pragmatism and adherence to established laws.

Romanticism, like sentimentalism, paid great attention to a person’s personality, his feelings and experiences. Main conflict Romanticism was about the confrontation between the individual and society. Against the backdrop of scientific and technological progress and an increasingly complex social and political system, there was a spiritual devastation of the individual. Romantics sought to attract the attention of readers to this circumstance, to provoke a protest in society against lack of spirituality and selfishness.

Aesthetic and theoretical canons of romanticism The idea of ​​two worlds is the struggle between objective reality and subjective worldview. In realism this concept is absent. The idea of ​​dual worlds has two modifications: departure into the world of fantasy; travel, road concept.

Hero concept: romantic hero always an exceptional person; the hero is always in conflict with the surrounding reality; the hero's dissatisfaction, which manifests itself in the lyrical tone; aesthetic determination towards an unattainable ideal.

Speech style of a romantic work: extreme expression; the principle of contrast at the composition level; abundance of symbols.

The main genres of romanticism: Elegy Idyll Ballad Novella Novel Fantastic story

Realism Literary movement of the 19th century. Realism is a literary movement that objectively reflects the surrounding reality using the artistic means available to it.

The foundations of realism were laid by Aristotle in the 4th century. BC e. Instead of the concept of “realism”, he used the concept of “imitation”, which is close in meaning. Realism was then revived during the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment. In the 40s. 19th century in Europe, Russia and America, realism replaced romanticism.

Realist writers place their heroes in certain conditions and show how these conditions influenced the personality. While romantic writers were concerned about the discrepancy between the world around them and their inner worldview, the realist writer was interested in how the world around him influenced the individual. Actions of heroes realistic works conditioned by life circumstances.

Depending on the meaningful motives recreated in the work, they distinguish: critical (social) realism; realism of characters; psychological realism; grotesque realism.

Late A. S. Pushkin - the founder of realism in Russian literature ( historical drama"Boris Godunov", stories "The Captain's Daughter", "Dubrovsky", "Tales of Belkin", novel in verse "Eugene Onegin") M. Yu. Lermontov ("Hero of Our Time") N.V. Gogol (" Dead Souls", "The Inspector General") I. A. Goncharov ("Oblomov") A. I. Herzen ("Who is to blame?") N. G. Chernyshevsky ("What to do?") F. M. Dostoevsky ("Poor People" , “White Nights”, “Humiliated and Insulted”, “Crime and Punishment”, “Demons”) by L. N. Tolstoy (“War and Peace”, “Anna Karenina”, “Resurrection”).

I. S. Turgenev (“Rudin”, “ Noble nest", "Asya", "Spring Waters", "Fathers and Sons", "New", "On the Eve", "Mu-mu") A. P. Chekhov (" Cherry Orchard", "Three Sisters", "Student", "Chameleon", "The Seagull", "Man in a Case") V. G. Korolenko ("In bad society", "Children of the Dungeon", "Paradox", "The River Plays") A. I. Kuprin ("Junkers", "Olesya", "Staff Captain Rybnikov", "Gambrinus", "Shulamith") A. T. Tvardovsky (“Vasily Terkin”) V. M. Shukshin (“Cut”, “Crank”, “Uncle Ermolai”) B. L. Pasternak (“Doctor Zhivago”) M. A. Sholokhov (“ Quiet Don", "The Fate of a Man") M. A. Bulgakov ("The Master and Margarita", "Heart of a Dog")