Fundamentals of sociology and political science: textbook. Social behavior: elements, characteristics

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Social behavior - behavior expressed in the totality of actions and actions of an individual or group in society and depending on socio-economic factors and prevailing norms

Social behavior - This qualitative characteristics of social action and interaction.

For example, 450 deputies simultaneously participate in the work of the State Duma, i.e. political activity. However, the behavior of these political subjects is ambiguous: some are dozing in their parliamentary chairs, others are shouting something from their seats, others are rushing to the microphone installed on the podium, and others are starting a fight with their colleagues.

Participants in mass events also behave differently. Thus, some demonstrators peacefully march along the declared route, others seek to organize unrest, and others provoke bloody clashes. All these differences in the actions of subjects of social interaction fall within the definition "social behavior". In other words, all the described actors are engaged in political activity or participate in a mass event, but their behavior is different.

Hence, social behavior- This way of manifestation a social actor of his preferences, motives, attitudes, opportunities and abilities in social action or interaction.

Social behavior of the individual (groups) may depend on many factors.

Let's list some of them:

. individual emotional and psychological qualities of the subject social interaction. For example, the behavior of V.V. Zhirinovsky is characterized by emotional intensity, unpredictability, shockingness; V.V. Putin - prudence, balance in words and actions, external calm;

. personal (group) interest of the subject in current events. For example, a deputy intensively lobbies for a bill that interests him, although he is quite passive when discussing other issues;

. adaptive behavior , that is, behavior associated with the need to adapt to the objective conditions of life. For example, it is difficult to imagine a daredevil who, in a crowd glorifying a political leader (Hitler, Stalin, Mao Zedong), would shout slogans denouncing this leader;

. situational behavior , i.e., behavior determined by the actual conditions that have arisen, when social subject in his actions he is forced to take into account the situation that has arisen;

Behavior caused moral principles and moral values actor. For example, J. Bruno and many other great thinkers could not give up their principles and became victims of the Inquisition;

. competence actor in a particular political situation or political action. The essence of “competence” is how well the subject controls the situation, understands the essence of what is happening, knows the “rules of the game” and is able to use them adequately;

. behavior caused by various types of manipulation . For example, through lies, deception, and populist promises, people are forced to behave in one way or another. Thus, a presidential candidate (governors, deputies) in his election program promises, if elected, to fulfill certain orders of his voters, but, having become president, he does not even think of fulfilling his promise;

. coercion to a certain type of behavior. Such methods of influencing behavior are usually characteristic of totalitarian and authoritarian regimes. For example, under the communist regime in the USSR, people were forced to participate in mass political actions (subbotniks, rallies, elections, demonstrations) and at the same time behave in a certain way.

On the nature of behavior motivation and degree of involvement influence actor in a particular event or process. For example, for some, participation in political events is random episode, for others - policy is profession, for the third - calling and meaning of life, for the fourth - way to earn a living.

Mass behavior can be due to the socio-psychological properties of the crowd when individual motivation is suppressed and dissolves in the not entirely conscious (sometimes spontaneous) actions of the crowd.

You can select four levels of social behavior subject:

1) the subject's reaction to the current situation , on certain specific and rapidly changing influences external environment(events). These are behavioral acts;

2) habitual actions or behavior , acting as elements of behavior, as its purposeful acts, which express the subject’s stable attitude towards other subjects.

Action is a process subordinated to the idea of ​​the result that should be achieved, that is, a process subordinated to a conscious goal. Or, in other words, an act is an action that is perceived and recognized by the acting subject himself as a social act, as a manifestation of the subject, which expresses a person’s attitude towards other people. An act is a socially significant unit of behavior that allows one to establish a correspondence between the social situation and social need subject;

3) goal-oriented sequence social actions and actions in one or another sphere of life, where a person pursues significantly more distant goals, the achievement of which is ensured by a system of actions (for example, entering a university, obtaining a profession, creating and settling a family, etc.);

4) implementation of strategic life goals .

The third and fourth levels of individual behavior are of greatest importance for sociology. The fourth level of individual behavior is of paramount importance for sociology, since it is associated with the process of realizing a goal that is vital for the individual - transforming the ideal into the real.

Types of social behavior: n moderate (intentional) behavior (carried out on purpose) and unintentional (carried out randomly, without a head).

Basic types of social behavior:

Appropriate and inappropriate behavior

Right and wrong

Syntonic and conflict behavior.

Appropriate behavior- meets the requirements of the situation and people's expectations.

Inappropriate social behavior behavior of a teenager that violates accepted social norms among people. This is, for example, rudeness, negligence, unnecessaryness, irresponsibility, refusal to fulfill one’s direct duties.

Correct Behavior- behavior that meets the expectations of others (adequate behavior) and is directed towards a person’s desired goal.

Misbehavior- behavior directed away from the desired goal.

Syntonic behavior- behavior that creates harmony between people. This is usually behavior that respects the interests and needs of the person, behavior that is attentive and warm.

Conflict behavior- behavior that gives rise to conflicts. Usually this is behavior that, without sufficient reason, goes against the needs of the partner or people around him.

Social behavior- the totality of actions and actions of individuals and their groups, their specific direction and sequence, affecting the interests of other individuals and communities. Behavior reveals the social qualities of a person, the characteristics of his upbringing, cultural level, temperament, his needs, and beliefs. It is in him that his attitude towards the surrounding natural and social reality, towards other people and towards himself is formed and realized. In sociology, it is customary to distinguish two forms of behavior - normative and non-normative. Social behavior is regulated by a system of rules, norms and sanctions, united by the process of social control.

Developing as a person, a person also changes the forms of his behavior. Therefore, it is an indicator of individual and personal development.

There is a wide variety of definitions of this term. Thus, according to K. Levin, it is a function of the individual in relation to his social environment. M.A. Robert and F. Tilman offer a target approach in defining this concept: “an individual’s behavior is a reaction aimed at changing the situation in order to satisfy his needs.” R.N. Harré introduces a normative connotation into the interpretation of the term: “behavior is a sequence of episodes, complete fragments, regulated by certain rules and plans.” The interactionist concept characterizes social behavior as an adaptation to the conditions of the social environment. Behavior is manifested by participation in a large collective process in which the person is involved. At the same time, both the personality itself and its behavior are a product of interaction with society.

What actions of an individual can be classified as social behavior?

Any actions performed by a person can have two sides: one and the same action can be both an act and an operation. Take, for example, the process of eating food. The very sequence of actions performed in this case reflects purely technical side affairs. Another question is how a person does it. There is already an element of behavior here. This manifests itself mainly when other persons are involved in the process. Even simple automatic actions under these conditions become socially oriented.

The purpose of most everyday actions performed by a person is to satisfy simple physiological needs. E.M. Penkov distinguishes three types of individual actions:

• a) actions-operations;
• b) purely individual actions, not socially oriented;
• c) social behavior itself, that is, a system of actions - actions regulated by a system of social norms. Social behavior is considered by the author as “such an action - an act that contains the moment of the individual’s relationship to the interests of the community.” Indeed, a person does not dare to carry out some actions at all if someone is nearby (for example, undressing or picking his nose). The mere presence of other persons, therefore, significantly changes the nature of a person's actions, turning them into social behavior.

According to V. Vichev, social behavior as a whole is a network of actions that differ from ordinary actions not only in their orientation toward other persons, but also in the presence of subjective factors, or motives, at their basis. In this case, the motive is considered as a conscious need, as goal setting and the choice of appropriate tactics for future action. Social behavior therefore appears to be a system of motivated actions that involve not just the satisfaction of a certain need, but also a certain moral goal, not always associated with the usefulness of the action performed for the individual himself.

Of course, there is a difference between the behavior of an individual in small and in large groups.

However, in both cases, the actions performed by the individual depend on the expected reactions. In addition, each element of behavior is individual and unique.

Behavior is characterized by social competence, which demonstrates how well the subject controls the situation, understands the essence of what is happening, knows the “rules of the game,” feels social differences, distances, and boundaries.

In the social behavior of a subject, four levels can be distinguished:

• 1) the subject’s reaction to the current situation or events;
• 2) habitual actions or deeds that express the subject’s stable attitude towards other subjects;
• 3) a purposeful sequence of social actions and behaviors to achieve more distant goals by the subject;
• 4) implementation of strategic life goals.

Summarizing all of the above, we can define social behavior as a system of individually formed reactions to the influence of the surrounding social environment, which determine the method of adaptation to it. Social behavior reveals preferences, motives, attitudes, capabilities and abilities of acting (interacting) social subjects (individual and collective level).

The social behavior of an individual (group) may depend on many factors, including: the individual emotional and psychological qualities of the subject and the subject’s personal (group) interest in current events.

Main types of social behavior:

• 1. Adequate and inappropriate behavior. Adequate behavior - consistent with the requirements of the situation and people's expectations. As a type of social behavior, adequate behavior within oneself is divided into:
  • a) conformal behavior;
  • b) responsible behavior;
  • c) helping behavior;
  • d) correct behavior;
  • e) syntonic behavior.

Types of inappropriate behavior:

• a) victim behavior;
• b) deviant behavior;
• c) delinquent behavior;
• d) demonstrative behavior;
• e) conflict behavior;
• e) erroneous behavior.
• 2. Right and wrong.

Correct - corresponding to accepted norms and rules, erroneous - not corresponding to norms and rules due to accidental error or ignorance.

3. Syntonic and conflict behavior.

social action behavior deviance

Social action is “the action of a person (regardless of whether it is external or internal character, comes down to non-interference or patient acceptance), which is assumed by the actor or actors meaning relates to or is oriented toward the actions of other people.” The concept of social action was first introduced into scientific circulation by the German sociologist Max Weber. Max Weber developed the first classification of types of social action, based on the degree of rationality of individuals' behavior. So, they were allocated:

• · purposeful,
• · value-rational,
• · traditional,
• · affective.

For T. Parsons, the problems of social action are associated with the identification of the following features:

• · normativity (depends on generally accepted values ​​and norms).
• · voluntariness (that is, connection with the will of the subject, ensuring some independence from the environment)
• · presence of sign regulation mechanisms.

Any social action is a system in which the following elements can be distinguished:

It is necessary to distinguish between the following two concepts: “behavior” and “action”. If behavior is the body’s response to internal or external stimuli (it can be reflexive, unconscious or intentional, conscious), then action is only some types of behavior. Social actions are always intentional sets of actions. They are associated with the choice of means and are aimed at achieving a specific goal - changing the behavior, attitudes or opinions of other individuals or groups, which would satisfy certain needs and interests of those influencing. Therefore, the final success largely depends on the correct choice of means and method of action. Social action, like any other behavior, can be (according to Weber):

• 1. goal-oriented, if it is based on the expectation of a certain behavior of objects in the external world and other people and the use of this expectation as “conditions” or “means” to achieve one’s rationally set and thoughtful goal,
• 2. value-rational, based on faith in the unconditional - aesthetic, religious or any other - self-sufficient value of a certain behavior as such, regardless of what it leads to;
• 3. affective, primarily emotional, that is, due to the affects or emotional state of the individual;
• 4. traditional; that is, based on long-term habit.

In this case:

• 1. Purely traditional action, like purely reactive imitation, is on the very border, and often even beyond the limit, of what can be called “meaningfully” oriented action. After all, often this is only an automatic reaction to habitual irritation in the direction of a once learned attitude. Most of the habitual everyday behavior of people is close to this type, which occupies a certain place in the systematization of behavior not only as a borderline case, but also because loyalty to the habit can be realized here in different ways and to varying degrees (more on this below). In some cases, this type approaches type No. 2.
• 2. Purely affective action is also on the border and often beyond the limit of what is “meaningful”, consciously oriented; it may be an unimpeded response to a completely unusual stimulus. If an action driven by affect finds expression in conscious emotional release, we speak of sublimation. In this case, this type is almost always close to “value rationalization”, or to goal-directed behavior, or to both.
• 3. The value-rational orientation of action differs from affective behavior in the conscious determination of its orientation and consistently planned orientation towards it. Their common property is that the meaning for them lies not in achieving any external goal, but in behavior itself, which is definite in nature. An individual acts under the influence of affect if he seeks to immediately satisfy his need for revenge, pleasure, devotion, blissful contemplation, or to relieve the tension of any other affects, no matter how base or refined they may be. A purely value-rational act is one who, regardless of possible consequences, follows his beliefs about duty, dignity, beauty, religious destiny, piety or the importance of a “subject” of any kind. Value-based and rational action (within the framework of our terminology) is always subject to “commandments” or “demands”, in obedience to which a given individual sees his duty. Only to the extent that human action is oriented towards them - which is quite rare and to a very varying, mostly very insignificant extent - can we talk about value-rational action. As will become clear from further presentation, the significance of the latter is so serious that it allows us to distinguish it into a special type of action, although no attempt is made here to give an exhaustive classification of the types of human action in any sense.
• 4. The individual whose behavior is focused on the goal, means and side results of his actions acts purposefully, who rationally considers the relationship of the means to the goal and side results and, finally, the relationship of various possible goals to each other, that is, he acts, in any case, not affective (primarily not emotional) and not traditional. The choice between competing and colliding goals and consequences can, in turn, be value-rationally oriented - then behavior is goal-oriented only by its means. The individual can also include competing and clashing goals - without a value-rational orientation on "commandments" and "demands" - simply as given subjective needs on a scale according to the degree of their consciously weighed necessity, and then orient his behavior in such a way that these needs, as far as possible were satisfied in the prescribed manner (the principle of “marginal utility”). The value-rational orientation of action can, therefore, be in different relationships with the goal-rational orientation. From a goal-rational point of view, value rationality is always irrational, and the more irrational, the more it absolutizes the value on which behavior is oriented, because the less it takes into account the consequences of the actions performed, the more unconditional for it is the self-sufficient value of behavior as such (purity of belief. beauty, absolute goodness, absolute fulfillment of one's duty). However, the absolute purposeful rationality of action is also essentially only a borderline case.
• 5. Action, especially social action, is very rarely focused only on one or another type of rationality. This classification itself, of course, does not exhaust the types of action orientations; they are conceptually pure types created for sociological research, to which real behavior more or less approximates or - which is much more common - of which it consists. For us, only the result of the study can serve as proof of their feasibility.

Social action is a certain system of actions, means and methods, using which an individual or social group seeks to change the behavior, views or opinions of other individuals or groups. The basis of social action is contacts; without them, the desire to provoke certain reactions of an individual or group or change their behavior cannot arise. So, social actions are those actions whose goal is to cause a change in the behavior, attitudes and aspirations of individuals or communities. M. Weber already emphasized that not all people’s actions represent social actions, since achieving not every goal involves focusing on other people. On this subject, in his work “Basic Sociological Concepts” he wrote: “Social action (including non-interference or patient acceptance) can be oriented towards the past, present or expected future behavior of others. It can be revenge for past grievances, protection from danger in the present, or measures to protect against impending danger in the future. “Others” can be individuals, acquaintances, or an indefinite number of completely strangers" Thus, according to M. Weber, social action is a synthesis of two necessary points:

• · subjective motivation for the action of an individual or group;
• · orientation to the behavior (past, present or expected future) of others.

Any social action is a system in which the following elements can be distinguished:

• · subject of action, influencing individual or community of people;
• · the object of the action, the individual or community at whom the action is directed;
• · means (instruments of action) and methods of action with the help of which the necessary change is carried out;
• · the result of an action is the response of the individual or community at whom the action was directed.

Social action according to Habermas. Habermas was developing own theory communicative action, which is in many ways a continuation of the works of Max Weber. As part of his theory, Habermas identified 4 ideal types of social action:

• 1. Strategic Action- an action aimed at achieving selfish goals, taking into account the behavior of one or more individuals. This action is partially rational, because person chooses the most effective way achieving your own goal. People in this case are viewed as means or obstacles to achieving selfish goals.
• 2. Regulatory action- This is mutually beneficial behavior based on the norms and values ​​that are shared in a given group. Participants in this action can pursue their own selfish goals, but this will be possible only if accepted norms are observed. The rationality of this action lies in the fact that people need to calculate the objective consequences of their actions from the point of view of accepted norms.
• 3. Dramatic action- the action of creating an image, which is based on a person’s self-expression. In other words, it is the act of presenting oneself to others. A person in this action reveals his individuality.
• 4. Communicative action- action in agreement with other participants to achieve a common goal. In the types of action described above, subjects can move towards a common goal, but the pursuit of a common goal is only a means to achieve their individual, egoistic goals. In the case of communicative action, the basis is precisely the achievement of a common goal, while the achievement of egoistic goals in this case fades into the background.

Social behavior(English) Social behavior) - behavior expressed in the totality of actions and actions of an individual or group in society and depending on socio-economic factors and prevailing norms.

The study of human social behavior is carried out by such a relatively young scientific discipline as social psychology. Social behavior is also inherent in many social animals (for example, primates, bees), which are studied by ethologists, zoopsychologists and other specialists. Nicholas Tinbergen defines social behavior in animals as the interaction between individuals of the same species, specifically emphasizing that not all group activity will be social. So, for example, the flight of animals from forest fire is not “social behavior”, it is a reaction caused by the instinct of self-preservation.

The biological value of the social behavior of animals is that it allows them to solve adaptive problems that are impossible for an individual individual.

Social behavior is also defined as a qualitative characteristic of social action and interaction. For example, 450 deputies simultaneously participate in the work of the State Duma, that is, they are engaged in political activities. However, the behavior of these political subjects is ambiguous: some are dozing in their parliamentary chairs, others are shouting something from their seats, others are rushing to the microphone installed on the podium, and others are starting a fight with their colleagues.

Participants in mass events also behave differently. Thus, some demonstrators peacefully march along the declared route, others seek to organize unrest, and others provoke bloody clashes. All these differences in the actions of subjects of social interaction fall under the definition of “social behavior”. In other words, all the described actors are engaged in political activity or participate in a mass event, but their behavior is different. Consequently, social behavior is the way a social actor manifests his preferences, motives, attitudes, capabilities and abilities in social action or interaction.

The social behavior of an individual (group) can depend on many factors. Let's list some of them:

• · individual emotional and psychological qualities of the subject of social interaction. For example, the behavior of V.V. Zhirinovsky is characterized by emotional intensity, unpredictability, shockingness; V.V. Putin - prudence, balance in words and actions, external calm;
• · personal (group) interest of the subject in current events. For example, a deputy intensively lobbies for a bill that interests him, although he is quite passive when discussing other issues;
• · adaptive behavior, i.e. behavior associated with the need to adapt to objective living conditions. For example, it is difficult to imagine a daredevil who, in a crowd glorifying a political leader (Hitler, Stalin, Mao Zedong), would shout slogans denouncing this leader;
• · situational behavior, i.e. behavior determined by actually existing conditions, when a social subject in his actions is forced to take into account the emerging situation;
• · behavior determined by the moral principles and moral values ​​of the actor. For example, Jan Hus, J. Bruno and many other great thinkers could not give up their principles and became victims of the Inquisition;
• · the actor’s competence in a particular political situation or political action. The essence of “competence” is how well the subject controls the situation, understands the essence of what is happening, knows the “rules of the game” and is able to use them adequately; behavior caused by various types of manipulation. For example, through lies, deception, and populist promises, people are forced to behave in one way or another. Thus, a presidential candidate (governors, deputies) in his election program promises, if elected, to fulfill certain orders of his voters, but, having become president, he does not even think of fulfilling his promise;
• · violent coercion to a certain type of behavior. Such methods of influencing behavior are usually characteristic of totalitarian and authoritarian regimes. For example, under the communist regime in the USSR, people were forced to participate in mass political actions (subbotniks, rallies, elections, demonstrations) and at the same time behave in a certain way.

The nature of behavior is influenced by the motivation and degree of involvement of the actor in a particular event or process. For example, for some, participation in political events is a random episode, for others, politics is a profession, for others it is a calling and the meaning of life, for others it is a way to earn a living. Mass behavior can be determined by the socio-psychological properties of the crowd, when individual motivation is suppressed and dissolved in the not entirely conscious (sometimes spontaneous) actions of the crowd.

Four levels of a subject’s social behavior can be distinguished:

• 1) the subject’s reaction to the current situation, to certain successive events;
• 2) habitual actions or actions, acting as elements of behavior in which the subject’s stable attitude towards other subjects is expressed;
• 3) a purposeful sequence of social actions and actions in one or another sphere of life in order for the subject to achieve more distant goals (for example, entering a university, obtaining a profession, creating and settling a family, etc.);
• 4) implementation of strategic life goals.

The problem of regulating the social behavior of an individual is one of the socio-psychological problems that reflect the crisis state of modern Russian society, a change in its functional state, the destruction of the system of higher, transpersonal values ​​that determined the meaning of social and personal existence. The problem of regulating social behavior is associated with the loss of previous social identifications by the individual, social roles, which served as the primary basis for behavioral orientation. Mismatch in the value world of the individual, transformation of norms and ideals leads to disruption of the regulation of relations in society and increased irresponsibility of the individual for his social actions.

Currently in social psychology There is an increasing interest in the problems of social behavior of the individual, the system of its regulation in connection with the uniqueness of the human personality, its actions and deeds. The tendency of researchers to consider problems associated with the study of the processes of self-organization and self-determination of the individual in the sphere of their social practice is becoming more noticeable.

In foreign studies, the problems of social behavior have established traditions. The representative of functionalism, W. James, reveals behavior as a function of consciousness in the survival of the organism. The founders of behaviorism B. Skinner and J. Watson proclaim behavior to be the subject of study in psychology. They define behavior as a system of externally registered reactions with the help of which an individual adapts to environmental stimuli.

Refusing to understand the linear determination of social behavior, this category was studied in more detail by E. C. Tolman (variable “I” - “individuality”), A. Bandura (imitation in social learning), D. Rotter (locus control), R. Martens, G. Tarde, G. Lsbon (the principle of imitation and mental contagion), D. Homane (direct contact between individuals), etc. The works of Western scientists reveal a complex system of determinants of social behavior and construct active methods of behavioral training that provide the opportunity to implement training, therapy and correction of social behavior.

There is a wide variety of definitions of the concept of “social behavior”. In the "field theory" K. Lewin considers social behavior as a function of the individual acting in relation to his social environment, and he identifies true or false needs as motives for behavior. In the target approach (M.A. Robert, F. Tilman), social behavior is understood as “a reaction aimed at changing the situation in order to satisfy one’s needs.” In interactionism (J. Mead, G. Blumer) it is revealed that social behavior is manifested through participation in a large collective process in which a person is involved and is based on interpretations of significant symbols that carry social information. The personality and its behavior in this case are a product of interaction with society.

The study of the problem of social behavior in domestic research for a long time was based on the activity approach, which was developed in the psychological schools of S. L. Rubinstein and A. N. Leontiev. In the activity approach, personality is considered as a condition and product of activity. For a holistic understanding of the individual in the system of his social connections and relationships, the concept of “behavior” began to be used in Russian psychology only in the 80s. XX century Domestic psychologists consider needs (A.V. Petrovsky), feelings, interests, ideals, worldview (S.L. Rubinstein), and attitudes (A.G. Asmolov) as motivating forces of social behavior.

In the psychological dictionary, social behavior is defined as behavior expressed in the totality of actions and actions of an individual or group in society, and depending on socio-economic factors and prevailing norms. The source of behavior is needs, which act as a form of connection between a person and the social environment of his life. In this interaction, a person appears as an individual, in all the diversity of his social connections.

The signs of social behavior are its social conditioning, conscious, collective, active, goal-setting, voluntary and creative nature. In domestic psychology, the concept of behavior is considered in relation to the concepts of “activity”, “activity”, as well as “social activity”, “social activity”. The common generic basis of activity and behavior is activity.

The specificity of the species is that objective, practical activity determines the subject-object connections of a person with environment, behavior is the subject-subject relationship of the individual with the social environment. Behavior acts as a form of existence of a person who is a representative of a particular group, the uniqueness of whose behavior lies in the fact that it is social behavior.

Social behavior is an integral and dominant form of behavior and personality manifestation. All other types of activity in a certain way and to a certain extent depend on it, are conditioned by it. Social behavior includes a person’s actions in relation to society, other people and the objective world, regulated by public norms of morality and law. The subject of social behavior is the individual and the social group.

Social behavior is a system of socially determined actions by language and other sign-semantic formations, through which an individual or a social group participates in social relations and interacts with the social environment.

The structure of social behavior includes the following elements: behavioral act, action, deed, deed, which carry their own semantic load, specific psychological content and, in the aggregate, make up a holistic, purposeful social behavior of the individual.

Behavioral act represents a single manifestation of behavior, an element that reproduces the main links of its structure. The structure of a behavioral act can be considered from the perspective of the concept of functional systems by P.K. Anokhin. Studying the physiological structure of a behavioral act, P.K. Anokhin came to the conclusion that it was necessary to distinguish between two types of functional systems. Functional systems of the first type, using various mechanisms, automatically compensate for emerging shifts in the internal environment.

Functional systems of the second type provide an adaptive effect by going beyond the body through communication with outside world, through changes in behavior and underlie various behavioral acts, various types of behavior. According to P.K. Anokhin, the architectonics of functional systems that determine purposeful behavioral acts of varying degrees of complexity are composed of successively successive stages:

• – afferent synthesis,
• – decision making,
• – acceptor of action results,
• – efferent synthesis,
• – action formation,
• – assessment of the achieved result.

As we see, the structure of a behavioral act presents the main characteristics of behavior, such as purposefulness and the active role of the subject in organizing behavior.

Social Actions occupy central place in social behavior. M. Weber in the theory of social action revealed its main features: the presence of subjective meaning possible options behavior, the subject’s conscious orientation towards the response of others and its expectation. Social actions are aimed at changing the behavior and attitudes of other people, satisfying the needs and interests of those influencing and depend on choice effective means and methods for their implementation.

M. Weber distinguished goal-rational, value-rational, affective and traditional action, depending on the degree of participation of conscious, rational elements in it.

Purposeful action is based on the expectation of certain behavior of other persons and the use of it to achieve the individual’s goals. M. Weber believes that the individual whose behavior is focused on the goal, means and side results of his actions acts purposefully, who rationally considers the relationship of the means to the goal and side results..., i.e. acts not emotionally and not on the basis of tradition or habit, but on the basis of an analysis of a reasonable combination of personal and social goals.

Most common in real life value-rational actions. They are based on a belief in the value of behavior, regardless of the consequences it may lead to (principles or a sense of duty aimed at moral satisfaction). According to M. Weber, they are subject to “commandments” or “requirements”, obedience to which is the duty of every person. When implementing value-based and rational actions, the influencer fundamentally adheres to and fully relies on the values ​​and norms accepted in society, even to the detriment of his personal goals.

A traditional action is a habitual action that is performed primarily without reflection, on the basis of social patterns of behavior, habits and norms deeply internalized by individuals.

Affective action is an action caused by feelings, emotions, committed in a state of relatively short-term, but intense emotional state, which arose in response to the desire for immediate satisfaction of a thirst for revenge, passion or attraction.

According to M. Weber, traditional and affective actions are not social in the full sense, since they are most often realized outside of awareness and comprehension, they are distinguished by a low degree of participation of conscious, rational elements.

Social actions have public importance. They are based on a clash of interests and needs social forces society, in connection with which social actions act as a form and method of resolving social problems and contradictions. They differ in the types of social problems they solve (social, economic, development of spiritual life). The subjects of these actions are individuals and social groups, acting in a certain situation and having socially determined motivations, intentions and attitudes.

The psychological characteristics of social actions are determined by motivation, the attitude towards the “I” as the source and subject of actions, the relationship between the meaning and significance of actions, rational and irrational, conscious and unconscious in their motivation, as well as the subjective meaning of the actions performed by a person.

The socio-psychological characteristics of social action are correlated with such phenomena as the perception of the social action of the immediate environment; its role in motivating social action; the individual’s awareness of belonging to a certain group as a motivating factor; the role of the reference group; mechanisms of social control of an individual’s social actions.

Deed is a personal form of behavior in which an independent choice of goals and methods of behavior is made, often contrary to generally accepted rules. Actions are not automatisms, reflexes, ballistic movements, actions - impulsive, habitual, heteronomic (carried out according to orders, service instructions, external requirements, according to a prescribed role).

An act includes a creative act of choosing goals and means of behavior, which sometimes comes into conflict with the established, habitual, routine. An act acts as a personally meaningful, personally constructed and personally implemented behavior (action or inaction) aimed at resolving the conflict. According to M. According to M. Bakhtin, an act has such mandatory properties as axiology (non-technical), responsibility, uniqueness, and eventfulness. The act arises due to the formation of self-awareness in adolescence (L. S. Vygotsky).

An act as the basic unit of social behavior is characterized by the presence of an internal plan of action, which represents a consciously developed intention, a forecast of the expected result and its consequences. An act can be expressed: by action or inaction; position expressed in words; an attitude towards something, formalized in the form of a gesture, a look, a tone of speech, a semantic subtext; action aimed at overcoming physical obstacles and searching for truth.

When evaluating an action, you need to take into account the system social norms accepted in this society. Important for action moral meaning actions, the action itself should be considered as a way of carrying out an action in a specific situation. Actions are included in the system moral relations society, and through them - into the system of all social relations.

Act is a set of actions. In an act as an element of a person’s social behavior, activity is realized that has high social significance and effectiveness. The subject himself bears responsibility for socially significant results, even if it goes beyond his intentions. The responsibility of an individual is expressed in his ability to foresee the social and psychological consequences of his own activity and is based on socio-historical criteria for their assessment.

The goal of an individual’s social behavior is to transform the surrounding world, to implement social change in society, socio-psychological phenomena in a group, personal transformations of a person. The result of social behavior is the formation and development of interactions and relationships of the individual with other people and various communities. The variety of forms of social connections and relationships of an individual as a social and multifaceted phenomenon determines the types of his social behavior.

The basis for the socio-psychological classification of types of social behavior are the following criteria:

• 1) spheres of existence– nature, society, people (production, labor, socio-political, religious, cultural, everyday, leisure, family);
• 2) social structure society(class behavior of social classes and strata; ethnic behavior, socio-professional, sex role, gender, family, reproductive, etc.);
• 3) urbanization process(ecological, migration);
• 4) system of social relations(production behavior (labor, professional), economic behavior (consumer behavior, distribution behavior, exchange behavior, entrepreneurial, investment, etc.); socio-political behavior (political activity, behavior towards authorities, bureaucratic behavior, electoral behavior and etc.); legal behavior (law-abiding, illegal, deviant, criminal); moral behavior (ethical, moral, immoral, immoral behavior, etc.);
• 5) subject of social behavior(social behavior, mass, group, collective, cooperative, corporate, professional, ethnic, family, individual and personal behavior);
• 6) activity-passivity of personality(passive, adaptive, conformal, adaptive, stereotypical, standard, active, aggressive, consumer, production, creative, innovative, prosocial, procreative, behavior to help other people, behavior to assign responsibility or attribution behavior);
• 7) way of expression(verbal, non-verbal, demonstration, role, communicative, real, expected behavior, indicative, instinctive, reasonable, tactful, contact);
• 8) implementation time(impulsive, variable, long-term).

Main the subject of social behavior is the individual, since in the diverse forms and types of social behavior the socio-psychological and personal aspects predominate. Researchers note that the system-forming quality of social behavior is normativity, therefore all types of social behavior are varieties of normative, prescribed behavior.

Social behavior

The concept of “behavior” came to sociology from psychology. The meaning of the term “behavior” is different, different from the meaning of such traditional philosophical concepts as action and activity. If action is understood as a rationally justified act that has a clear goal, strategy, and is carried out using specific conscious methods and means, then behavior is just the reaction of a living being to external and internal changes. Such a reaction can be both conscious and unconscious. Thus, purely emotional reactions - laughter, crying - are also behavior.

Social behavior is a set of human behavioral processes associated with the satisfaction of physical and social needs and arising as a reaction to the surrounding social environment. The subject of social behavior can be an individual or a group.

If we abstract from purely psychological factors and think at the social level, then the behavior of an individual is determined primarily by socialization. The minimum of innate instincts that a person possesses as a biological being is the same for all people. Behavioral differences depend on qualities acquired during the process of socialization and, to some extent, on innate and acquired psychological individual characteristics.

In addition, the social behavior of individuals is regulated by the social structure, in particular the role structure of society.

Social norm of behavior- this is behavior that fully corresponds to status expectations. Thanks to the existence of status expectations, society can predict the actions of an individual in advance with sufficient probability, and the individual himself can coordinate his behavior with the ideal model or model accepted by society. Social behavior that corresponds to status expectations is defined by the American sociologist R. Linton as social role. This interpretation of social behavior is closest to functionalism, since it explains behavior as a phenomenon determined by social structure. R. Merton introduced the category of “role complex” - a system of role expectations determined by a given status, as well as the concept of role conflict that arises when the role expectations of the statuses occupied by a subject are incompatible and cannot be realized in any single socially acceptable behavior.

The functionalist understanding of social behavior was subjected to fierce criticism from, first of all, representatives of social behaviorism, who believed that it was necessary to build the study of behavioral processes on the basis of the achievements of modern psychology. The extent to which the psychological aspects were really overlooked by the role interpretation of the command follows from the fact that N. Cameron tried to substantiate the idea of ​​the role determination of mental disorders, believing that mental illness is the incorrect execution of one’s social roles and the result of the patient’s inability to perform them in the way society needs. Behaviorists argued that in the time of E. Durkheim, the successes of psychology were insignificant and therefore the functionality of the expiring paradigm met the requirements of the time, but in the 20th century, when psychology reached a high level of development, its data cannot be ignored when considering human behavior.

People behave differently in one or another social situation, in one or another social environment. For example, some demonstrators peacefully march along the declared route, others seek to organize unrest, and others provoke mass clashes. These various actions of social interaction actors can be defined as social behavior. Hence, social behavior is the form and method of manifestation by social actors of their preferences and attitudes, capabilities and abilities in social action or interaction. Therefore, social behavior can be considered as a qualitative characteristic of social action and interaction.

In sociology, social behavior is interpreted as: o behavior expressed in the totality of actions and actions of an individual or group in society and depending on socio-economic factors and prevailing norms; o external manifestation of activity, a form of transformation of activity into real actions in relation to socially significant objects; o a person’s adaptation to the social conditions of his existence.

To achieve life goals and in the implementation of individual tasks, a person can use two types of social behavior - natural and ritual, the differences between which are fundamental.

"Natural" behavior, individually significant and egocentric, is always aimed at achieving individual goals and is adequate to these goals. Therefore, the individual does not face the question of the correspondence between the goals and means of social behavior: the goal can and should be achieved by any means. The “natural” behavior of an individual is not socially regulated, so it is, as a rule, immoral or “unceremonious.” Such social behavior is “natural”, natural in nature, since it is aimed at ensuring organic needs. In society, “natural” egocentric behavior is “forbidden”, therefore it is always based on social conventions and mutual concessions on the part of all individuals.

Ritual behavior (“ceremonial”)- individually unnatural behavior; It is thanks to this behavior that society exists and reproduces. Ritual in all its diversity of forms - from etiquette to ceremony - so deeply permeates everything social life that people do not notice that they live in a field of ritual interactions. Ritual social behavior is a means of ensuring stability social system, and the individual implementing various forms of such behavior participates in ensuring the social sustainability of social structures and interactions. Thanks to ritual behavior, a person achieves social well-being, constantly being convinced of the inviolability of his social status and the preservation of the usual set of social roles.

Society is interested in ensuring that the social behavior of individuals is of a ritual nature, but society cannot abolish “natural” egocentric social behavior, which, being adequate in goals and unscrupulous in means, always turns out to be more beneficial for the individual than “ritual” behavior. Therefore, society strives to transform forms of “natural” social behavior into various forms of ritual social behavior, including through socialization mechanisms using social support, control and punishment.

To preserve and maintain social relations and ultimately to the survival of man as homo sapiens(homo sapiens) such forms of social behavior are directed as:

cooperative behavior, which includes all forms of altruistic behavior - helping each other during natural disasters and technological disasters, helping young children and the elderly, helping subsequent generations through the transfer of knowledge and experience;

parental behavior - the behavior of parents towards their offspring.

Aggressive behavior is presented in all its manifestations, both group and individual - from verbal insults of another person to mass extermination during wars.

Human behavior is studied in many areas of psychology - in behaviorism, psychoanalysis, cognitive psychology, etc. The term “behavior” is one of the key ones in existential philosophy and is used in the study of a person’s relationship to the world. The methodological capabilities of this concept are due to the fact that it allows us to identify unconscious stable structures of personality or human existence in the world. Among the psychological concepts of human behavior that have had a great influence on sociology and social psychology, one should mention, first of all, the psychoanalytic directions developed by Z. Freud, C. G. Jung, A. Adler.