Features of the artistic culture of the Middle Ages - abstract. Artistic culture of the Middle Ages Paganism in medieval culture

In the 4th century. began the invasion of tribes from Northern Europe and Asia into the territory of the Roman Empire, which received the name "Great Migration". For a long time, the Romans managed to hold back the onslaught of barbarian tribes (“barbarians” the Romans called all foreigners who spoke an incomprehensible language). The barbarians entered into alliances with Rome, settled in the territories bordering the empire, and even served as mercenaries in the Roman army. In 395, the Roman Empire was divided into Eastern (Byzantium) and Western. The latter, weakened by internal contradictions, could not resist the barbarians. In the conditions of incessant wars, Roman laws were violated, trade was reduced, and cities fell into decay. In 410, Rome was captured and plundered by the Germanic tribes of the Visigoths, and in 455 by the Vandals. In 476 The leader of the German mercenaries, Odoacer, removed the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and began to rule Italy himself. Western Roman Empire fell.

The stage of the Middle Ages has arrived - historical era which lasted almost ten centuries.

Before the art of the Middle Ages took on an original and vibrant form, it had to go through a stage of the formation of new ideals and principles. Christianity played a major role in this process.

From antiquity, medieval art borrowed some art forms and craft skills. Thus, the techniques of building temples, creating mosaics, frescoes and book miniatures originate in the Ancient world. However, the use of this experience in the art of the early Middle Ages was possible only in those areas that were formerly Roman provinces; in other territories, barbarian traditions dominated for a long time.

The barbarian tribes constantly moved from place to place, because of this, their art of that time is represented not by architectural monuments, but mainly by weapons, jewelry and various household utensils found in ancient burials and treasures. Barbarian craftsmen preferred bright colors and expensive materials - silver, gold, and precious stones.

In the V-VIII centuries. On the territory of the former Western Roman Empire, states of Germanic tribes arose: the Ostrogoths (later the Lombards) in Italy, the Visigoths in Spain, the Franks in Gaul ( modern Germany and France), Anglo-Saxons in Britain. At the same time, the barbarian peoples converted to Christianity, which was most directly reflected in art: Christian churches began to be built, in which images of saints and Christian symbols appeared. Temples were built on the model of Roman basilicas, building them from massive stones; wood was used for the floors; columns in most cases were borrowed directly from ancient structures.

The barbarian states were constantly at war with each other. In conditions of constant danger, the main advantage of residential buildings was considered to be their security - as a result, reliable and well-fortified structures - castles - appeared. Castles were built on elevated places and surrounded by high embankments and deep ditches.

"Carolingian Revival"

When in 800 Pope Leo III placed the “crown of Roman emperors” on the Frankish king Charlemagne (768-814), the empire was revived in Western Europe. Since the time of this emperor, European sovereigns began to call themselves kings. Under the Carolingians - the name of the dynasty founded by Charlemagne's grandfather Charles Martell - antiquity was proclaimed as the ideal in art. Architects and builders imitated ancient traditions, often simply borrowing details from ancient buildings; Roman painting served as a model for miniaturists. The art of that era was called the Carolingian Renaissance.

From architectural monuments Few of the “Carolingian Renaissance” have survived to this day. Among them are the chapel of the imperial residence in Aachen (788-805, Germany) (show), the “gate” with a gate hall in Lorsch (c. 800, Germany) (show), etc. literary sources it is known about the intensive construction of extensive monastic complexes, fortifications, basilica churches and residences - “palatinates”.

Temples and palaces were decorated with multi-colored mosaics (the oratory at Germigny-des-Prés, after 806), as well as frescoes, the content of which became more and more varied over time. The Church of St. John the Baptist (c. 800) in Münster (Switzerland), where the oldest known Carolingian frescoes are located, was painted with scenes from the Old and New Testaments. It was in this church that the image of the Last Judgment first appeared, which later became one of the characteristic features of medieval art.

During the Carolingian era, the art of book miniatures flourished. In 781-89. By order of Charlemagne, the Godescalk Gospel, named after the artist, was created in the palace book-writing workshop in Aachen. Among other illustrations in the book there are images telling about Charles's visit to Rome at Easter in 781, as well as the baptism of his son Pepin by Pope Adrian I.

One of the most remarkable works of the Carolingian Renaissance is considered to be the Utrecht Psalter (9th century) (show), in which illustrations on biblical themes were made with pen and ink in a clear graphic manner, now stored at the University of Utrecht (Netherlands). In the book one hundred sixty-five drawings, each of which corresponds to a specific psalm. For example, the scene with two craftsmen at the forge illustrates the following verse of the psalm: “The words of God are pure words, like silver refined in the furnace of the earth, purified seven times.” The style of the Utrecht Psalter had a huge influence on other types of medieval art.

From the middle of the 9th century. The illustrated manuscripts created in the monastery of St. Martin in Tours became famous. The so-called Bible of Charles II the Bald (846-51) depicts a solemn scene of the presentation of the book to this sovereign: a procession of monks, surrounded by richly dressed courtiers, clergy and guards, appears before the emperor. This miniature is one of the earliest images real event in Western European medieval art.

In 843, the Carolingian Empire collapsed. Throughout the second half of the 9th century in the territory former empire Internecine wars did not stop, which led to an almost complete decline of culture.

Romanesque style

In the X-XII centuries. (and in some places - in the 13th century) in art Western Europe The so-called Romanesque style dominated, which was one of the important stages in the development of medieval art. The formation of the Romanesque style was determined by the development of feudal relations and the ideology of the Catholic Church. In the field of religious architecture, the main distributors of the Romanesque style were monastic orders, and the builders, painters, sculptors and decorators of manuscripts were monks. Only at the end of the 11th century. wandering artels of lay stonemasons began to appear.

Individual Romanesque buildings and complexes (monasteries, churches, castles) were usually erected among the rural landscape and dominated the area, as an earthly likeness of the “city of God” or a visual expression of the power of the feudal ruler. Romanesque buildings were in harmony with the natural environment, their compact forms and clear silhouettes seemed to repeat and generalize the natural relief, and the local stone, which most often served as the material, organically combined with the soil and greenery. The appearance of the buildings is full of calm and solemn power. Characteristic features of Romanesque buildings were massive walls, the heaviness of which was emphasized by narrow window openings and stepped portals (entrances), as well as high towers, which became one of the main elements of the architectural composition. The Romanesque building was a system of simple volumes (cubes, parallelepipeds, prisms, cylinders), the surface of which was dissected by blades, arched friezes and galleries, rhythmizing the mass of the wall, but not violating its monolithic integrity. Temples developed the types of basilical and centric churches inherited from early Christian architecture; at the intersection of the transept with the longitudinal naves, a light lantern or tower was erected. Each of the main parts of the temple was a separate spatial cell, both inside and outside, clearly separated from the rest. In the interior, the measured rhythms of the arcades and girth arches separating the naves evoked a feeling of stability of the structure, this impression was strengthened by the vaults (mainly cylindrical, cross, cross-rib, less often - domes), which came in the Romanesque style to replace wooden ceilings and originally appeared in the side naves.

If in early Romanesque style main role wall painting played in the decor, then at the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries, when the vaults and walls acquired a more complex configuration, the leading type of temple decoration became monumental reliefs that decorated the portals, and often the entire facade wall, while in the interior they were concentrated on the capitals of the columns. In the mature Romanesque style, flat relief is replaced by a higher one, rich in light and shadow effects, but invariably maintaining an organic connection with the wall.

In the era of the Romanesque style, book miniatures flourished, as well as decorative and applied arts: casting, embossing, bone carving, enamel work, artistic weaving, jewelry.

In Romanesque painting and sculpture, a central place was occupied by themes related to the idea of ​​the boundless and formidable power of God (Christ in glory, the Last Judgment, etc.). In all types of Romanesque art, ornamentation, geometric or composed of motifs of flora and fauna, played an important role.

France

Romanesque art was most consistently formed in France, where three-nave basilicas were most widespread.

The largest and most majestic Romanesque churches, distinguished by their magnificent picturesque and sculptural decoration, were built in Burgundy. The most famous among the Burgundian churches were the Church of Saint-Madeleine in Vézelay (1120-50) and the Cathedral of Saint-Lazare in Autun (first half of the 12th century) (show).

The architecture of Auvergne is characterized by power, simplicity and monumentality. In massive churches with thick walls, sculptural decorations were used sparingly (Church of Notre-Dame du Port in Clermont, 12th century (show)).

The churches of Provence are richly decorated with sculpture, but it does not cover the entire surface of the walls, as in the churches of Burgundy, but is located only on the capitals of the columns and on the sides of the portals (the Church of Saint-Trophime in Arles, X-XI centuries (show)).

In the French secular architecture of the Romanesque style, a type of castle-fortress with a stone tower in the center - a donjon (loches castle, turn of the 11th-12th centuries) developed. On the first floor of the tower there were storerooms, on the second - the master's rooms, above them - rooms for servants and guards, and in the basement - a prison. A watch was posted at the top of the tower. As a rule, the castle was surrounded by a deep moat. The bridge, spanning the moat to the main tower, in case of danger was raised and closed with it the main gate of the tower. At the end of the 12th century. towers with loopholes and galleries with hatches in the floor appeared on the fortress walls - to throw stones or pour boiling tar on attackers.

Romanesque painting in France is widely represented by book miniatures. In 1028-72 In the monastery of Saint-Sever in the province of Gascony, an illustrated manuscript of commentaries on the Apocalypse was created. Miniatures made in the spirit folk traditions, are distinguished by bright, saturated colors and are unusually picturesque. Their author is considered to be Stefan Garcia, one of the few artists whose name has survived to this day.

Sculpture first appeared in Western European medieval churches in the 11th century. These were reliefs and small details of wall decoration. In the 12th century sculpture spread throughout almost all of Europe. Outstanding monuments of art of the Romanesque period include the sculptural decoration of the Burgundian churches of Saint-Lazare in Autun and Saint-Madeleine in Vézelay, which preserved numerous reliefs decorating the facades of walls, portals and column capitals (show).

Germany

In Germany, the Romanesque style was most fully and vividly embodied in architecture.

In the German lands there is a striking contrast between the modest, in some sense ascetic churches erected in reformed monasteries, and the famous “imperial” cathedrals in Mainz (1081-19th centuries), Worms (1170-1240) and Speyer (1030-19th centuries). .) - powerful, majestic basilicas with thick walls, narrow windows and massive towers (show).

During the Romanesque period in Germany, sculpture was usually placed inside temples; it began to appear on facades only at the end of the 12th century. At first these were relief inserts, later - expanded compositions. Relief decorations of crucifixes (Brunswick Crucifixion, c. 1160), lamps, fonts, tombstones, reliquaries, book stands, etc. are widely represented.

During the so-called “Ottonian” period (second half of the 10th - first half of the 11th centuries), German painting flourished.

The features of Ottonian art were most clearly manifested in book miniatures. Most of the surviving manuscripts were created in the Oberzell monastery. The miniatures “The Gospel of Otto III” and “The Book of the Gospel Readings of Henry II” are rightfully considered outstanding works of art by the masters of this school. Another center of miniature art was Trier. The high skill of the artists of the Trier school is evidenced by the miniatures of the manuscript, called the “Register of St. Gregory” (983). This is a collection of letters from Pope Gregory the Great. The book itself has not survived, but two miniatures have survived to this day.

England

In England, by the time of the Norman Conquest in 1066, an excellent school of book miniatures had been created.

On the contrary, island architecture - although the experience of continental masters was taken into account during the construction of Westminster Abbey (1049-65) - was at a more archaic stage of development compared to Normandy. Under William the Conqueror, the Tower of London was erected (1077 and later) (show).

Italy

In Italy, the early development of cities left an imprint on the nature of the architecture of the 11th-12th centuries. Along with the usual castles, fortresses, and monastery complexes throughout Europe, urban architecture itself developed here. A type of multi-storey rich residential building arose, and buildings for workshops and trade guilds were built.

In religious architecture, Italian builders steadfastly adhered to the basilical type for temples and the centric type for baptismal places; Campaniles (bell towers) were round or square in plan.

A masterpiece of medieval Italian architecture - the cathedral ensemble in Pisa (XI-XIV centuries), in Tuscany (show).

A masterpiece of medieval Italian architecture is the cathedral ensemble in Pisa, Tuscany. Its construction began with the foundation of the cathedral in 1063 on the outskirts of the city on a green meadow. The enterprise was headed by a master with the Greek name Busketo. The transept arms of the five-nave cathedral are, in essence, two small three-nave basilicas with apses - a composition that dates back to the ideas of Eastern Christian architecture of the 5th century. After 1118, the construction of the Pisa Cathedral was continued by master Rainaldo. He lengthened the main nave and erected facades. The main sanctuary of Pisa owes to him its light arcades and colored cladding of white and black (with a blue-gray tint) stone with marble inlays. On bright southern sun the cathedral contrasts with the greenery of the meadow and seems to absorb all the colors of the sky. In 1153 the Pisa Baptistery was founded. The architect Diotisalvi designed it similar to the neighboring cathedral. The construction of the campanile (belfry) in Pisa was begun in 1174, as suggested by William (Guglielmo) of Innsbruck and the master Bonanno. Like the cathedral and baptistery, the campanile has a monolithic base surrounded by blind arcades. Six tiers of arched galleries rise above them. This is how a single leitmotif of the ensemble emerged, uniting all three buildings. Due to uneven settlement of the soil, the Pisa Campanile tilted during the construction period. To prevent the belfry from falling, the last tier, built in 1301, was shifted in the direction opposite to the tilt of the tower in order to restore balance. The Leaning Tower, the cathedral and baptistery in Pisa, combined with the Gothic camposanto (cemetery), constitute a medieval ensemble of exceptional integrity and monumental grandeur.

Romanesque painting in Italy was formed under the influence of early Christian art and Byzantine culture.

Sicilian mosaics (Christ Pantocrator. Mosaic of the conch of the apse of the Cathedral in Montreal (show)), especially the mosaic decoration of the Palatine Chapel (show), created by Byzantine and local masters, had a great influence on the development of Romanesque painting in Europe.

The skill of Italian painters was also evident in the art of book illustration. The leading place among book-writing workshops was occupied by the school of the Montecassino monastery. Miniatures also decorated secular books.

The sculpture of Italy of the Romanesque period was formed mainly under the influence of ancient traditions. The most famous works Romanesque sculpture created in Northern Italy. These are monumental reliefs of churches in Milan, Verona, Pavia. The largest personality among Italian sculptors of the 12th - early 13th centuries. - Benedetto Antelami (active between 1175 and 1235). The first work of the sculptor, signed and dated 1178, is the relief “Descent from the Cross” (show) in the transept of the Cathedral in Parma.

Spain

In Spain, partly in connection with the Reconquista, the Romanesque era saw widespread construction of castle-fortresses (Alcazar Castle, Segovia, 9th century (show)) and city fortifications.

The most important building of medieval Spain is the cathedral of Santiago de Compostela (1077/78-1088, 1100-28) in Galicia (show). Perestroikas of the XVII-XVIII centuries. significantly changed the appearance of the temple, but the interior retained its Romanesque character.

Spanish painting occupies a special place in Romanesque art in Europe. These are well-preserved monumental ensembles and works of easel forms - altar images “frontales”, painted canopies (Christ in glory. Baldachin from the Church of San Marti in Tosta (show). Around 1200 – The canopy is an inclined panel installed on the altar) and a miniature . The basis for the formation of the style of Romanesque Spanish painting was the Mozarabic element with its penchant for linear contours and intense, sometimes dissonant colorful combinations. Works monumental painting Spain are marked by rough and severe expressiveness and have a clear contour pattern; preference is given to dense, covering paints, brown tones are especially characteristic.

Gothic

The name “Gothic art” (from the Italian gotico - “Gothic”, after the name of the German tribe of Goths) arose during the Renaissance as a derogatory name for all medieval art that was considered “barbaric”. Subsequently, the term "Gothic art" was attributed to European art late Middle Ages (between the middle of the XII and XV-XVI centuries).

From the beginning of the 19th century, when for the art of the 10th-12th centuries. The term “Romanesque style” was adopted, the chronological scope of Gothic was limited, and early, mature (high) and late (“flaming”) Gothic were distinguished.

Gothic developed in countries where the Catholic Church dominated. Gothic art remained predominantly cult in purpose and religious in theme: it was correlated with eternity, with “higher” irrational forces. From the Romanesque style, Gothic inherited the primacy of architecture in the art system and traditional types of religious buildings. Occupied a special place in Gothic art cathedral- the highest example of the synthesis of architecture, sculpture and painting (mainly stained glass).

The development of Gothic art was also influenced by fundamental changes in the structure of medieval society: the beginning of the formation of centralized states, the growth and strengthening of cities, the advancement of secular forces - urban, trade and craft, as well as court and knightly circles. With the development of social consciousness, crafts and technology, the possibilities of knowledge and aesthetic understanding expanded real world, new architectural types and tectonic systems took shape. Urban planning and civil architecture developed intensively. Urban architectural ensembles included religious and secular buildings, fortifications, bridges, and wells. The main city square was often lined with houses with arcades, trade and warehouse premises on the lower floors. The main streets radiated from the square; narrow facades of two-, less often three-story houses with high gables lined the streets and embankments. The cities were surrounded by powerful walls with richly decorated travel towers. The castles of kings and feudal lords gradually turned into complex complexes of fortresses, palaces and places of worship. Usually in the center of the city, dominating its development, there was a castle or cathedral, which became the center of city life. In it, along with divine services, theological debates were held, mysteries were played, and meetings of townspeople were held.

Gothic cathedrals differed significantly from the monastery churches of the Romanesque period: the Romanesque church is heavy and squat, the Gothic cathedral is light and directed upward. This is due to the fact that a new vault design was used in the Gothic cathedral. If in a Romanesque church massive vaults rest on thick walls, then in a Gothic cathedral the vault rests on arches, the so-called ribs. The basis of the Gothic design was a cross rib vault. Generally speaking, the use of arches to support vaults was known long before the Gothic era. In Gothic, the ribbed vault laying system changed. The ribs no longer completed the construction of the vault, but preceded it. The four supports were initially connected by cheek arches, then they were crossed by two diagonal arches - ogives. This structure formed the skeleton of the future vault. The arches forming the vault are called ribs. They were called upon to carry and fasten the formwork, which was laid out from lightweight slabs of stone. Now, with the use of a ribbed vault, the points of application of gravity and thrust forces became extremely clear to builders. An important innovation of Gothic architecture was the consistent use of pointed arches as first end and then diagonal ribs. They had less thrust, the main pressure was directed downward, towards the support. The abutments, not the wall, became the working part of Gothic architecture. In order to relieve the resulting loads, the lateral thrust of the vaults was dampened by an independent structural element placed outside the outer walls - a retaining ledge pillar, a buttress. In basilica-type buildings, where the middle nave was higher than the side ones, special connecting arches were used - flying buttresses - which were thrown from the arch of the main nave to the buttress of the outer wall. This design made it possible to reduce the thickness of the walls and increase the internal space of the temple. The walls ceased to serve as a support for the vault, which made it possible to create many windows, arches, and galleries in them. In the Gothic cathedral, the smooth surface of the wall disappeared, so wall painting gave way to stained glass - an image composed of colored glasses fastened together, which was placed in the window opening. In the Romanesque church its individual parts were clearly demarcated, while in the Gothic the boundaries between them were erased. The space of the cathedral - with numerous architectural and sculptural decorations, light pouring through the stained glass windows - created an image of the heavenly world, embodying the dream of a miracle.

Main view fine arts there was sculpture - the cathedral was decorated inside and outside a large number statues and reliefs. The rigidity and isolation of Romanesque statues was replaced by the mobility of the figures, their appeal to each other and to the viewer. There was an interest in real natural forms, in physical beauty and human feelings, new interpretation received themes of motherhood, moral suffering, martyrdom and sacrificial perseverance of man. The image of Christ changed - the theme of martyrdom came to the fore. In Gothic, the cult of the Mother of God developed - almost simultaneously with the worship of the beautiful lady, characteristic of the Middle Ages. Often both cults intertwined, and the Mother of God appeared in the guise of a beautiful woman. At the same time, the belief in miracles, fantastic animals, fairytale monsters- their images are found in Gothic art as often as in Romanesque (in the form of chimeras or gargoyles - drainage statues). Gothic organically intertwined lyricism and tragic affects, sublime spirituality and social satire, fantastic grotesque and folklore, sharp life observations. In the Gothic era, book miniatures flourished, along with church books, richly illustrated images of saints and scenes from Sacred history, books of hours (collections of prayers and texts distributed according to the calendar), novels, historical chronicles. Altar painting also appeared, and decorative art, associated with the high level of development of guild craft, reached a high level.

France

Gothic originated in Northern France(Ile-de-France) in the middle of the 12th century. and reached its peak in the first half of the 13th century. Stone Gothic cathedrals received their classical form in France. As a rule, these are 3-5-tier basilicas with a transverse nave-transept and a semi-circular choir, to which are adjacent radial chapels (“crown of chapels”). Their high and spacious interior is illuminated by the colorful shimmer of stained glass windows. The impression of uncontrollable movement upward and towards the altar is created by rows of slender pillars, the powerful rise of pointed pointed arches, and the accelerated rhythm of the arcades of the upper gallery. Thanks to the contrast of the high main and semi-dark side naves, a picturesque richness of aspects and a feeling of the infinity of space arises. The two-tower western facades of French cathedrals with three “perspective” portals and a patterned round window (“rose”) in the center combine upward aspiration with a clear balance of divisions. On the facades there are pointed arches and rich architectural, plastic and decorative details - patterned wimpers, phials, crabs, etc. The statues on the consoles in front of the columns of the portals and in their upper arched gallery, the reliefs on the plinths and tympanums of the portals, as well as on the capitals of the columns form an integral symbolic plot system, which includes characters and episodes of the Holy Scriptures, allegorical images. Best works Gothic sculpture - decorative statues of the facades of the cathedrals in Chartres, Reims, Amiens - are imbued with spiritual beauty, sincerity and nobility of feelings. Other parts of the temples were also decorated with reliefs, statues, floral patterns, and images of fantastic animals; characterized by an abundance of secular motifs in the decor: scenes of labor of artisans and peasants, grotesque and satirical images. The themes of the stained glass windows were also varied, the palette of which was dominated by red, blue and yellow tones. Early Gothic includes Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris (1163-mid-14th century) (show). The transition to the mature phase of Gothic development at the turn of the 12th-13th centuries. was marked by the construction of the cathedrals at Bourges and Chartres (show) (1194-1225). The grandiose mature Gothic cathedrals in Reims (show) (1211-1481) and Amiens (XIII-XV centuries) (show) are distinguished by the richness of rhythm, perfection of architectural composition and sculptural decoration. The mature Gothic style in France is sometimes called “radiant” due to the specific and widespread design of a rose window with radiating petals during this period. In the “radiant” style, art acquired the features of regal majesty, dynamic spirituality and exquisite grace. Volume-plastic compositions recede into the background, the walls turn into an ethereal openwork ornament. The transition is especially noticeable, for example, in the south arm of the transept of Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris (after 1257). The pinnacle of the development of “radiant” Gothic was the Sainte-Chapelle chapel in Paris (1243-48) (show). Since the 14th century City and monastery hall churches, castle and palace chapels acquired great importance. Late (“flaming”) Gothic is characterized by a whimsical pattern of window openings reminiscent of flames (the Church of Saint-Maclou in Rouen). Gothic compositional and decorative techniques were used in secular urban architecture. Town halls with lavish decoration, often with a tower, were built on the main square of cities (town hall in Saint-Quentin, 1351-1509). Castles were transformed into majestic palaces with rich interior decoration (the papal palace complex in Avignon), and mansions (“hotels”) of wealthy citizens were built.

In late Gothic, sculptural altars in interiors became widespread, combining painted and gilded wooden sculptures and tempera painting on wooden boards. A new emotional structure of images emerged, distinguished by dramatic (often exalted) expression, especially in the scenes of the suffering of Christ and the saints, conveyed with merciless truthfulness. Paintings on secular subjects appeared (in the papal palace in Avignon, XIV-XV centuries). In miniatures (mainly books of hours) there was a desire for the spiritual humanity of images, for the conveyance of space and volume. TO the best examples French Gothic decorative art includes small ivory sculpture, silver reliquaries, Limoges enamel, tapestries and carved furniture.

Germany

In Germany, as in other countries, the basis of Gothic art was architecture. Her transition to a new one artistic system wasn't easy. The invasion of Gothic elements was sporadic and uneven. German builders perceived primarily the decorative rather than the constructive side of French Gothic: round rose windows, edges, pointed arches, etc. The buildings of the transitional type may include the cathedrals of Magdeburg and Bonn (XI-XIII centuries) and a number of rebuilt Cologne buildings, for example, the Gereonskirche church in Cologne (1219-27). The heyday of German Gothic dates back to the middle of the 13th century. (Cathedral in Naumburg, etc. (show)). In Germany, hall churches appeared early (Elisabethkirche in Marburg, 1235-83), in the southwest a type of single-tower cathedral developed (in Freiburg im Bresgau, in Ulm); in the north, brick churches were built (Marienkirche in Lübeck), in which the simplicity of plans, volumes and structures was combined with patterned masonry, the use of glazed and patterned bricks. The eastern choir of the Cologne Cathedral (show) (started in 1248) and the Cathedral in Strasbourg (show) turned out to be the closest to the French prototypes. Stone, brick and half-timbered secular buildings (city gates, town halls, workshop and warehouse buildings, etc.) are diverse in type, composition and decor.

The sculpture of the cathedrals (in Bamberg, Magdeburg, Naumburg) is distinguished by vital concreteness and monumentality, deep expressiveness of images, however, compared to French, works of German Gothic sculpture are executed less gracefully and subtly. The sculptural decoration of the cathedral in Bamberg belongs to the early Gothic style; there are numerous reliefs here, as well as the figure of the Horseman (show) (about 1237). Outstanding work German sculptures are statues of the founders of the cathedral in Naumburg (Margrave Eckerhard and Margrave Utta (show), second half of the 13th century).

Late German Gothic (late 14th - early 16th centuries) gave brilliant examples of hall churches (Annenkirche in Annaberg-Buchholz, 1499-1525) and palace halls (Albrechtsburg in Meissen) with complex vault patterns. Altar sculpture and painting reached their peak.

Netherlands

The glory of Dutch Gothic was brought by the towers of the cathedrals in Antwerp and Mechelen, but especially by the richly decorated civil buildings: the cloth rows (in Bruges, 1248-1364) of the town hall (in Bruges, 1376-1421, in Brussels, 1401-55; in Ghent, 1518- 35) (show).

England

Gothic style entered England in the last quarter of the 12th century. and beyond the English Channel acquired a pronounced national identity. Large abbeys remained the main focus of cathedral construction. The characteristic features of English Gothic emerged early. Already Canterbury Cathedral, rebuilt after the fire of 1174, showed a number of significant differences from the French prototypes. They were revealed in the plan: the building has two transepts, one of which is shorter than the other. The double transept later became distinctive feature cathedrals in Lincoln, Wales, Salisbury. Romanesque traditions turned out to be persistent in England. The old cathedrals were spacious and did not require radical reconstruction; only new Gothic “clothes” were put on the old core (the eastern part of the cathedral in Gloucester, the cathedral in Winchester). The efforts of English architects focused not so much on the constructive as on the decorative side of the new art. The space of English cathedrals remained divided for a long time: the choir, naves, and transept were isolated, horizontal divisions prevailed over vertical ones. The cathedrals have retained a considerable length. English Gothic is characterized by stretched facades, far-out transepts, and various kinds of vestibules. Apses had mostly rectangular endings; a choir with a roundabout and chapels is rare. The western towers are small, but the tower above the middle cross stands out more. In the interior, the middle nave, as a rule, did not rise above the side ones to a significant height; the role of flying buttresses was limited; they were hidden under the roof of the side naves. The strict geometric simplicity of the volumes is compensated by the richness and complexity of the patterns on the facade and vaults. In English architecture, cathedrals were associated with monastery-type buildings - chapter halls, chapels, cloisters. Gothic retained its importance in England until the middle of the 16th century. It is customary to distinguish early, or “lanceolate” (based on the shape of the window) Gothic (XIII century), mature, or “decorated” (late XIII - XIV centuries) and late, or “perpendicular” Gothic (XV century). The originality of the Gothic architecture of England appeared most clearly in the cathedrals of Salisbury, Lincoln, Wells, and York (show).

The stages of construction of the cathedral in Wales, rebuilt from a Romanesque building, with its richly sculptured west facade (1220-39), chapter hall (1290-1319), Chapel of Our Lady and eastern choir (14th century) successively marked the change in styles of English Gothic, taking shape into a coherent and impressive architectural ensemble. The unity of the plan was already outlined in the initial sketch of the plan for this three-nave basilica with a transept and choir; completions of the 14th century they just developed and complicated it. The stretched façade is perceived as a moving, wave-like mass. The low side towers end abruptly and slow down the vertical rhythms; the portals are included in the decorative divisions. Notable in Wells Cathedral is the bold design of the arches of the cross, which are connected to each other at the tops (“overturned arches”). Built in the 14th century, they connect the old part of the nave with the choir, made in the “decorated” style.

The reconstruction of the Romanesque building in Lincoln (1192-1380) (show), one of the longest in England (157 m), brought a number of new architectural techniques to English Gothic.

INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP

(INEP)

Correspondence department

ABSTRACT

Test paper on the subject “Cultural Studies” on the topic

“Features of the artistic culture of the Middle Ages”

Student of group F-41kz Mironova Oksana Valerievna

Scientific supervisor ___________________________________

Moscow 2007

INTRODUCTION

1. Artistic culture medieval Europe

1.1. Aarchitecture

1.2. Sculpture

1.3. Painting

1.5. Metal processing

2. GOTHIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE

3. Medieval music and theater

3.1. Music

3.2. Theater

3.2.1 Religious drama or miracle plays

3.2.3. Medieval secular drama

3.2.4. Moral plays

CONCLUSION

1. Artistic culture of medieval Europe

Romanesque style.

The first independent, specifically European artistic style of medieval Europe was Romanesque, which characterized the art and architecture of Western Europe from about 1000 until the advent of Gothic, in most regions until about the second half and end of the 12th century, and in some even later. It arose as a result of the synthesis of the remains of the artistic culture of Rome and barbarian tribes. At first it was the proto-Romanesque style.

At the end of the Proto-Roman period, elements of the Romanesque style were mixed with Byzantine, with Middle Eastern, especially Syrian, which also came to Syria from Byzantium; with Germanic, with Celtic, with features of the styles of other northern tribes. Various combinations of these influences created a variety of local styles in Western Europe, which received the general name Romanesque, meaning “in the manner of the Romans.” Since the bulk of the surviving fundamentally important monuments of the Proto-Romanesque and Romanesque style are architectural structures: the various styles of this period are often distinguished by architectural schools.

1.1. Architecture

The architecture of the 5th-8th centuries is usually simple, with the exception of buildings in Ravenna, Italy, built according to Byzantine rules. Buildings were often created from or decorated with elements taken from old Roman buildings. In many regions this style was a continuation of early Christian art. Round or polygonal cathedral churches, borrowed from Byzantine architecture, were built during the Pre-Romanesque period; later they were erected in Aquitaine in southwestern France and Scandinavia.

The most famous and best-developed examples of this type are the Cathedral of San Vitalo of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian in Ravenna (526-548) and the octagonal palace chapel built between 792 and 805 by Charlemagne in Isle-la-Capelle (presently Aachen, Germany), directly inspired by the Cathedral of San Vitalo. One of the creations of Carolingian architects was the westwork, a multi-story entrance facade flanked by bell towers, which began to be added to Christian basilicas. Westworks were the prototypes of the facades of giant Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals.

Important buildings were also designed in the monastic style. Monasteries, characteristic religious and social phenomenon of that era, they required huge buildings that combined both monks’ homes and chapels, rooms for prayers and services, libraries, and workshops. Elaborate pre-Romanesque monastic complexes were erected at St. Gall (Switzerland), on the island of Reichenau (German side of Lake Constance) and at Monte Cassino (Italy) by Benedictine monks.

The outstanding achievement of the architects of the Romanesque period was the development of buildings with stone voltae (arched, supporting structures). The main reason To develop stone arches, there was a need to replace the highly flammable wooden floors of pre-Romanesque buildings. The introduction of voltaic structures led to the general use of heavy walls and pillars.

1.2. Sculpture

Most Romanesque sculptures were integrated into church architecture and served both structural, constructive and aesthetic purposes. Therefore, it is difficult to talk about Romanesque sculpture without touching on church architecture. Small-sized sculpture of the pre-Roman era made of bone, bronze, and gold was made under the influence of Byzantine models. Other elements of numerous local styles were borrowed from the crafts of the Middle East, known for imported illuminated manuscripts, bone carvings, gold objects, ceramics, and textiles. Also important were motifs derived from the arts of migrating peoples, such as grotesque figures, images of monsters, and intertwined geometric patterns, especially in areas north of the Alps. Large-scale stone sculptural decorations only became common in Europe in the 12th century. In the French Romanesque cathedrals of Provence, Burgundy, and Aquitaine, many figures were placed on the facades, and statues on the columns emphasized the vertical supporting elements.

1.3. Painting

Existing examples of Romanesque painting include decorations of architectural monuments, such as columns with abstract designs, as well as wall decorations with images of hanging fabrics. Pictorial compositions, in particular narrative scenes based on biblical stories and from the lives of saints, were also depicted on the wide surfaces of the walls. In these compositions, which largely follow Byzantine painting and mosaics, the figures are stylized and flat, so that they are perceived more as symbols than as realistic representations. Mosaics, like painting, were essentially a Byzantine technique and were widely used in the architectural design of Italian Romanesque churches, especially St. Mark's Basilica (Venice) and the Sicilian churches of Cefalu and Montreal.

Proto-Roman artists reached the highest level in illustrating manuscripts. In England, an important school of manuscript illustration arose already in the 7th century at Holy Island (Lindisfarne).

The works of this school, exhibited in the British Museum (London), are distinguished by the geometric interweaving of patterns in capital letters, frames, and they densely cover entire pages, which are called carpets. Drawings of capital letters are often enlivened by grotesque figures of people, birds, and monsters.

Regional schools of manuscript illustration in southern and Eastern Europe developed various specific styles, which is noticeable, for example, in the copy of the Apocalypse of Beata (Paris, National Library), made in the middle of the 11th century in the monastery of Saint-Sever in Northern France. At the beginning of the 12th century, the illustration of manuscripts in the northern countries acquired common features, just as the same thing happened at that time with sculpture. In Italy, Byzantine influence continued to dominate in both miniature painting, wall paintings, and mosaics.

1.5. Metal processing

Pro-Roman and Romanesque metal processing- a widespread art form - were used mainly to create church utensils for religious rituals. Many of these works remain to this day in the treasuries of great cathedrals outside France; French cathedrals were looted during the French Revolution. Other metalwork from this period is early Celtic filigree jewelry and silver objects; late products of German goldsmiths and silver items inspired by imported Byzantine metal products, as well as wonderful enamels, especially cloisonné and champlevé, made in the areas of the Moselle and Rhine rivers. Two famous metalworkers were Roger of Gelmar-Schausen, a German known for his bronze work, and the French enameller Godefroy de Clare.

The most famous example of Romanesque textile work is the 11th century embroidery called the Bayeux Tapestry. Other examples survive, such as ecclesiastical vestments and drapery, but the most valuable textiles in Romanesque Europe were imported from the Byzantine Empire, Spain and the Middle East and are not the product of local craftsmen.

2. Gothic art and architecture

The Romanesque style was replaced by a new style, the Gothic, as cities flourished and social relations improved. Religious and secular buildings, sculpture, colored glass, illuminated manuscripts, and other works of fine art began to be executed in this style in Europe during the second half of the Middle Ages.

Gothic art originated in France around 1140, spread throughout Europe over the next century, and continued to exist in Western Europe throughout most of the 15th century, and in some regions of Europe into the 16th century. The word Gothic was originally used by writers of the Italian Renaissance as a derogatory label for all forms of architecture and art of the Middle Ages, which were considered comparable only to the works of the barbarian Goths. Later use of the term "Gothic" was limited to the period of the late, high or classical Middle Ages, immediately following the Romanesque. Currently, the Gothic period is considered one of the most outstanding in the history of European artistic culture.

The main representative and exponent of the Gothic period was architecture.

Although a huge number of Gothic monuments were secular, the Gothic style served primarily the church, the most powerful builder in the Middle Ages, which ensured the development of this new architecture for that time and achieved its fullest realization.

The aesthetic quality of Gothic architecture depends on its structural development: ribbed vaults became a characteristic feature of the Gothic style.

Medieval churches had powerful stone vaults that were very heavy. They tried to open up and push out the walls. This could lead to the collapse of the building. Therefore, the walls must be thick and heavy enough to support such vaults. At the beginning of the 12th century, masons developed ribbed vaults, which included slender stone arches located diagonally, transversely and longitudinally. The new vault, which was thinner, lighter and more versatile (since it could have many sides), solved many architectural problems. Although early Gothic churches allowed for a wide variety of forms, the construction of a series of great cathedrals in northern France, beginning in the second half of the 12th century, took full advantage of the new Gothic vault. Cathedral architects discovered that external thrust forces from vaults were now concentrated in narrow areas at the joints of the ribs, and could therefore be easily counteracted by buttresses and external flying buttresses.

Consequently, the thick walls of Romanesque architecture could be replaced by thinner ones that included extensive window openings, and interiors received illumination hitherto unparalleled. Therefore, a real revolution took place in the construction business.

With the advent of the Gothic vault, both the design, shape, and layout and interiors of cathedrals changed. Gothic cathedrals acquired general character lightness, upward striving, have become much more dynamic and expressive. The first of the great cathedrals was Notre Dame (begun in 1163). In 1194, the cathedral of Chartres was founded, which is considered the beginning of the High Gothic period. The culmination of this era was the Cathedral of Reims (begun in 1210). Rather cold and all-conquering in its finely balanced proportions, Reims Cathedral represents a moment of classical peace and serenity in the evolution of Gothic cathedrals. Openwork partitions, a characteristic feature of late Gothic architecture, were the invention of the first architect of Reims Cathedral. Fundamentally new interior solutions were found by the author of the cathedral in Bourges (begun in 1195). The influence of French Gothic quickly spread throughout Europe: Spain, Germany, England. In Italy it was not so strong.

Sculpture. Following Romanesque traditions, in numerous niches on the facades of French Gothic cathedrals, a huge number of figures carved from stone were placed as decorations, personifying the dogmas and beliefs of the Catholic Church. Gothic sculpture in the 12th and early 13th centuries was predominantly architectural in nature. The largest and most important figures were placed in the openings on both sides of the entrance. Because they were attached to columns, they were known as column statues. Along with columnar statues, free-standing monumental statues were widespread, an art form unknown in Western Europe since Roman times. The earliest that have come down to us are the column statues in the western portal of Chartres Cathedral. They were still in the old pre-Gothic cathedral and date from around 1155. The slender, cylindrical figures follow the shape of the columns to which they were attached. They are executed in a cool, austere, linear Romanesque style, which nevertheless gives the figures an impressive character of purposeful spirituality.

From 1180, Romanesque stylization began to transition into a new one, when the statues acquired a sense of grace, sinuousness and freedom of movement. This so-called classical style culminates in the first decades of the 13th century in large series of sculptures on the portals of the north and south transepts of Chartres Cathedral.

The emergence of naturalism. Beginning around 1210 on the Coronation Portal of Notre Dame Cathedral and after 1225 on the West Portal of Amiens Cathedral, the ripple effect of classical surface design begins to give way to more formal volumes. The statues of the Reims Cathedral and in the interior of the Sainte-Chapelle Cathedral have exaggerated smiles, emphatically almond-shaped eyes, curls arranged in bunches on small heads and mannered poses produce a paradoxical impression of a synthesis of naturalistic forms, delicate affectation and subtle spirituality.

3. Medieval music and theater

3.1. Medieval music

Medieval music is predominantly spiritual in nature and is a necessary component of the Catholic mass. At the same time, already in the early Middle Ages, secular music began to take shape.

The first important form of secular music were the songs of the troubadours in the Provençal language. Beginning in the 11th century, the songs of the troubadours remained influential in many other countries for more than 200 years, especially in northern France. The pinnacle of troubadour art was reached around 1200 by Bernard de Ventadorn, Giraud de Bornel Folke de Marseille. Bernard is famous for his three texts about unrequited love. Some of the poetic forms anticipate the 14th century ballad with its three stanzas of 7 or 8 lines. Others talk about the crusaders or discuss some love trivia. Pastorals in numerous stanzas convey banal stories about knights and shepherdesses.

Dance songs, such as rondo and virelai, are also in their repertoire. All this monophonic music could sometimes have accompaniment on a string or wind instrument. This was the case until the 14th century, when secular music became polyphonic.

3.2. Medieval theater

In an ironic twist of history, theater in the form of liturgical drama was revived in Europe by the Roman Catholic Church. As the church sought ways to expand its influence, it often adapted pagan and folk festivals, many of which contained theatrical elements. In the 10th century, many church holidays provided the opportunity for dramatization: generally speaking, the Mass itself is nothing more than a drama.

Certain holidays were famous for their theatricality, such as the procession to church on Palm Sunday. Antiphonal or question-and-answer chants, masses and canonical chorales are dialogues. In the 9th century, antiphonal chimes, known as tropes, were included in the complex musical elements of the mass. The Three-Part Paths (dialogue between the three Marys and the angels at the tomb of Christ) by an unknown author from about 925 are considered the source of liturgical drama. In 970, a record of instructions or manuals for this small drama appeared, including elements of costume and gestures.

3.2.1. Religious drama or miracle plays.

Over the next two hundred years, liturgical drama slowly developed, incorporating various biblical stories acted out by priests or choir boys. At first, ecclesiastical vestments and existing architectural details of churches were used as costumes and decorations, but soon more ceremonial decoration details were invented. As liturgical drama developed, it presented many biblical themes in succession, typically depicting scenes from the creation of the world to the crucifixion of Christ. These plays were called differently - passions (Passion), miracles (Miracles), holy plays. Appropriate decorations rose around the church nave, usually with heaven in the altar and a Hellmouth - an elaborate monster's head with a gaping mouth, representing the entrance to hell - at the opposite end of the nave. Therefore, all scenes of the play could be presented simultaneously, and the participants in the action moved around the church from one place to another depending on the scenes.

The plays were apparently episodic, spanning periods of literally thousands of years, moving the action to a variety of locations, and presenting the setting and spirit of different times, as well as allegories. Unlike ancient Greek tragedy, which clearly focused on creating the preconditions and conditions for catharsis, medieval drama did not always show conflict and tension. Its purpose was to dramatize the salvation of the human race.

Although the church supported early liturgical drama in its didactic quality, entertainment and showmanship increased and began to predominate, and the church began to express suspicion of drama. Not wanting to lose the beneficial effects of the theater, the church compromised by removing dramatic performances from the walls of the church churches themselves. The same material design began to be recreated in the market squares of cities. While maintaining its religious content and orientation, the drama became much more secular in its production character.

3.2.3 Medieval secular drama

In the 14th century, theatrical productions were associated with the feast of Corpus Christi and developed into cycles that included up to 40 plays. Some scholars believe that these cycles developed independently, although simultaneously with liturgical drama. They were presented to the community over an entire four to five year period. Each production could last one or two days and was staged once a month. The production of each play was financed by some workshop or trade guild, and usually they tried to somehow connect the specialization of the workshop with the subject of the play - for example, a shipbuilding workshop could stage a play about Noah. Since the performers were often illiterate amateurs, the anonymous authors of the plays tended to write in easy-to-remember, primitive verse. In accordance with the medieval worldview, historical accuracy was often ignored, and the logic of cause-and-effect relationships was not always respected.

Realism was used selectively in productions. The plays are full of anachronisms, references to purely local circumstances known only to contemporaries; only minimal attention was paid to the realities of time and place. The costumes, furnishings and utensils were entirely modern (medieval European). Something could be portrayed with extreme precision - there are reports of actors almost dying due to too realistic execution of a crucifixion or hanging, and of actors who literally burned to death while playing the devil. On the other hand, the episode of the retreat of the waters of the Red Sea could be indicated by simply throwing a red cloth over the pursuing Egyptians as a sign that the sea had swallowed them up.

The free mixture of the real and the symbolic did not hinder medieval perception. Spectacles and folk plays were performed wherever possible, and the hellmouth was usually a favorite object of effort for the masters of mechanical wonders and pyrotechnicians. Despite the religious content of the cycles, they increasingly became entertainment. Three main forms of production were used. In England, carnival floats were the most common. The earlier ecclesiastical settings gave way to elaborate traveling scenes, such as small modern ships that moved from place to place in the city. Spectators gathered in each such place: the performers worked on platforms of carts, or on stages built on the streets. They did the same in Spain. In France, synchronized productions were used - various sets were raised one after another on the sides of a long, raised platform in front of the assembled spectators.

Finally, again in England, plays were sometimes staged "in the round" - on a circular stage, with the scenery placed around the circumference of the arena and the audience sitting or standing between the scenery.

3.2.3. Moral plays

During the same period folk plays, secular farces and pastorals appeared, mostly by anonymous authors, which stubbornly preserved the character of worldly entertainment. All this influenced the evolution of morality plays in the 15th century. Although written on themes of Christian theology with relevant characters, morality plays were not like cycles, since they did not present episodes from the Bible. They were allegorical, self-contained dramas and were performed by professionals such as minstrels or jugglers. Plays such as Everyman usually dealt with the life path of an individual. The allegorical characters included such figures as Death, Gluttony, Good Deeds and other vices and virtues.

These plays are in some places difficult and boring for modern perception: the rhymes of the poems are repeated, improvised in nature, the plays are two to three times longer than Shakespeare's dramas, and the moral is stated in a straightforward and didactic manner. However, the performers, by incorporating music and action into the performances and using the comic capabilities of numerous characters of vices and demons, created a form of folk drama.

Conclusion

The Middle Ages were a time of intense spiritual life, a complex and difficult search for ideological constructs that could synthesize the historical experience and knowledge of previous millennia.

In this era, people were able to take a new path of cultural development, different from what they knew in previous times. Trying to try on faith and reason, building pictures of the world based on the knowledge available to them and with the help of Christian dogmatism, the culture of the Middle Ages created new artistic styles, a new urban way of life. Contrary to the opinion of the thinkers of the Italian Renaissance, the Middle Ages left us with the most important achievements of spiritual culture, including the institutions of scientific knowledge and education. The image proposed by the philosopher, scientist and culturologist M.K. could not be more successful. Petrov: he compared medieval culture to scaffolding. It is impossible to build a building without them. But when the building is completed, the scaffolding is removed, and one can only guess what it looked like and how it was constructed. Medieval culture, in relation to our modern one, played precisely the role of such forests: without it, Western culture would not have arisen, although medieval culture itself was basically not similar to it.

Bibliography

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Feature of the Roman artistic culture, – focus on identifying portrait... formation and the beginning medieval period. History artistic culture medieval Europe is usually divided...

The development of the artistic culture of the Middle Ages is connected with the history of the entire Middle Ages. At an early stage, the preservation of the ancient heritage, especially the Latin language, was of greatest importance. The most important role here was played by the works of Aurelius Augustine, Martian Capella, and Severinus Boethius. In the VI century. Flavius ​​Cassiodorus, a close associate of the Ostrogothic kings, gives examples of the Latin style in his books.

In his southern Italian estate Vivarium there was a library, a scriptorium - a workshop for copying books, and a school. Vivarium was imitated by Benedictine monasteries, the main guardians of cultural tradition. At the beginning of the 7th century. in Spain, Isidore of Seville writes the encyclopedia “Etymology,” which contains the remains of ancient knowledge. Another trend of the early Middle Ages was the growth of self-awareness of barbarian peoples.

The stories of the Goths, Vandals, Franks, Angles and Lombards appear, the legal norms of the barbarians, their myths, legends, and songs are written down. The merging of Roman and barbarian traditions into a single European culture contributed to the “Carolingian Revival” in the empire of Charlemagne, which took place under the slogan of Christian enlightenment. The literature of this time was mainly educational and reference in nature, closely related to the needs of the church and state.

Medieval culture takes on its classical forms in the 11th–14th centuries. In this era of prosperity, the interaction and sometimes the struggle of pan-European and national principles plays a large role in it. Representatives of both rethink the ethical and aesthetic values ​​of Christianity, they are affected by Byzantine and Islamic influences, and they constantly return to ancient models.

In the XIV-XVI centuries. The Renaissance and Reformation, despite their chronological coincidence with the Middle Ages, generate cultural phenomena that go beyond its scope and therefore require separate study.

Art strives for concentration, the visible embodiment of which is the book and the temple. The temple is not only a place of worship of God, but also a model of the world created by God.

This model strives to resemble the original, which requires all kinds of art to recreate. A medieval book, as a rule, is sacred to one degree or another. Scripture and the tradition of the church are the covenants of God, written in human language.

But also scientific works pagans and Muslims are the mirror of creation. The books were carefully finished, decorated and highly valued. To remove them from the city, special permission from the authorities was required.

Religious and scientific literature enjoyed the greatest respect.

The most ancient genre of secular literature in its origin was the heroic epic. It is closely connected with the life of the barbarian era, early feudal military poetry, and is full of pagan images and ideas. True, the epic was written down in later versions, influenced by Christianity and knightly ideology. The greatest attention is paid here to historical details and all kinds of fabulous events and miracles, since the epic was both the custodian of the collective memory of the people and folklore.

In Northern Europe (Iceland, Scandinavian countries), saga tales were created and performed by skald poets who used material from ancient Germanic mythology. The Anglo-Saxon Tale of Beowulf is similar to them. The realities of military history of the early Middle Ages underlie the French “Song of Roland” and the Spanish “Song of My Cid”.

Heroic epic Germany - “The Song of the Nibelungs” combines memories of the deeds of the Burgundian kings and the fabulous adventures of the hero Siegfried. All these poems, folk in origin, were subjected to literary processing in the spirit of chivalry, which, however, in origin was closely connected with the heroes of the epic - barbarian leaders and their warriors.

Knightly literature itself is represented by what arose in the middle of the 12th century. a chivalric romance. Novels were written in national languages. Their main source was the Celtic tales about King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table, about tragic love Tristan and Isolde, about the exploits of Lancelot, Perceval, Amadis, stories popular throughout Europe about the search for the Grail - the magic cup with the blood of Christ.

The largest representative of this genre was the French poet of the 12th century. Chretien de Troyes. Although the novel is close to the epic, its heroes live in a completely different environment - at the courts of kings and large feudal lords of the mature Middle Ages. It's adding up here special culture behavior, communication, entertainment, which served as a model for all chivalry.

To characterize it, the term “courtiness” is used, denoting the qualities of an ideal court gentleman and coming from the French word courtoisie (courtesy, courtesy, politeness). Courtly culture and courtly literature formed one whole. Historians note that in the XIV–XV centuries. such important elements of the life of feudal lords as knightly orders, vows, tournaments, focus on literary images, turn into a skillful and sophisticated game.

Cult beautiful lady- a necessary part of courtly culture. Loving "service" has become a kind of religion upper circle. It is no coincidence that at the same time the veneration of the Virgin Mary developed so strongly. The Madonna reigns in heaven and in the hearts of believers, just as a lady reigns in the heart of a knight in love with her.

Besides chivalric romance This theme also develops in poetry. From the end of the 11th century. in southern France, the poetry of troubadours, who wrote in Provençal, flourished. Other countries are also keen on it: Trouvères appear in the north of France, and Minnesingers appear in Germany. Courtly poetry develops in Italy and Spain. The subjects of this poetry were not only the love adventures of knights, but also their military exploits, descriptions of tournaments and holidays, and praises of the lord.

From the 11th century centers cultural life become cities. From its very inception, urban literature was created in folk dialects. Her favorite genres are poetic short stories, fables, jokes, which put forward a new hero - a resilient, smart and dexterous typical city dweller. An urban satirical epic is taking shape - the French “Roman of the Fox”, translated into all European languages.

Urban "games" are becoming complex ideas, consisting, in addition to the play, of performances by jugglers, acrobats, magicians, singers, etc. The culture of the city was closely connected with the village, they had many common features and can be called different types folk culture.

Despite all the differences between folk and “high” cultures, one cannot help but see the connection between them. Not all works of spiritual and liturgical literature were intended for the intellectual elite. Collections of prayers and sermons, the lives of saints, were distributed among the broad masses and written in a language accessible to them.

17. Medieval history usually divided into three periods: VI-XI centuries - early Middle Ages, the period of formation of feudalism; XII-XV centuries - classical Middle Ages, developed feudalism; XVI - first half of the XVII century - late Middle Ages, the period of the decline of feudalism. The 5th century is considered to be the beginning new era- a feudal formation, called in history the Middle Ages and spanning more than a millennium, from the 5th to the mid-17th century, from the fall of the Western Roman Empire to the beginning of revolutions in England and the Netherlands.

Medieval art is a special stage in the world artistic development. One of its main features is its close connection with religion, with its dogmas, hence its spiritualism and asceticism. Religion and its social institution - the church - were a powerful ideological force, the most important factor in the formation of the entire feudal culture. The very “worldview of the Middle Ages was predominantly theological.” In addition, the church was the main customer of art. Finally, we should not forget that the clergy was the only educated class at that time. Religious thinking shaped all medieval art. This does not mean, however, that the real contradictions of life were not reflected in the art of the Middle Ages, that medieval artists did not strive to seek harmony, and did not express in art dreams of a rational structure of the world. But medieval art expressed this encoding in its much more conventional language (although, of course, all art is conditional) than in the previous era.

Another feature of medieval art is its proximity to folk art. Traditions of pagan culture, folk customs, oral creativity, the perky and biting humor of folk carnivals - all this left its mark on the art of the Middle Ages. It's more layered than art ancient world, no longer ignores the people, especially since it is created by the hands of artisans who came out of the very thick of this people. Of course, among the works of medieval art, the most preserved are works of religious significance. The Church has always understood the power of art, its enormous impact on the masses and treated it as Holy Scripture for the illiterate, whose main task is to instruct in the faith. Earthly existence, which according to the Christian religion is insignificant compared to afterlife, cannot become a subject of depiction worthy of attention in art. The body is just an ugly prison for the soul, a shackle for its immortality, an insignificant vessel of sin and temptation. Thus, from the doctrines of Christianity, an ideal is born that is opposite to the ideal of antiquity. Art no longer strives to imitate nature, real forms, it turns into symbols of the beyond. A different system of plastic language and expressive techniques is being developed.

The figurative structure and language of medieval art is more complex and expressive than the art of antiquity; it conveys the inner world of man with greater dramatic depth. It more clearly expresses the desire to comprehend the general laws of the universe. The medieval master sought to create a grandiose artistic painting world in architecture, monumental painting and sculpture decorating medieval churches. But in the artistic system itself, the artistic method of medieval art, there was a certain predetermination, which manifests itself primarily in the utmost convention, in the symbolism and allegorism of figurative language, to which the truthful transmission of the beauty of the physical appearance of a person was sacrificed. The art of the Western European Middle Ages is divided in its evolution into three stages: pre-Romanesque - VI-X centuries, Romanesque - XI-XII centuries. and Gothic -XIII-XV centuries. The name “Romanesque” comes from the word “Roma”, Rome, and arose conventionally in the 19th century, when connections between medieval architecture and Roman architecture were discovered; the name “Gothic” comes from the Goths and is even more conventional (as a symbol of barbaric art).

The Middle Ages is a unique historical period. For each country it began and ended at different times. For example, in Western Europe the Middle Ages are considered to be the period from the 5th to the 15th centuries, in Russia - from the 10th to the 17th centuries, and in the East - from the 4th to the 18th centuries. Let us further consider what spiritual heritage the creators of that era left us.

General characteristics

What was medieval art like? Briefly speaking, it united the spiritual quests of the masters who lived at that time. The main themes of their creations were determined by the church. It was she who acted then as the main customer. Meanwhile, the history of medieval art is connected not only with Christian dogmas. In the folk memory of that time there were still signs of a pagan worldview. This can be seen in customs, folklore and rituals.

Music

Without it, one cannot consider medieval art. Music was considered an integral element of the life of people of that time. She always accompanied holidays, celebrations, and birthdays. Among the most popular instruments were horns, flutes, bells, tambourines, whistles, and drums. The lute came from the eastern countries into the music of the Middle Ages. There were ritual features in the motifs of that time. For example, at the beginning of spring, special music was composed, with which people drove away the spirits of winter and heralded the onset of warmth. At Christmas time the bells always rang. He carried the good news of the appearance of the Savior.

Romanesque style

It filled the medieval art of Western Europe in the 10th - 12th centuries. In some areas this style survived into the 13th century. It became one of the most important stages in the art of the Middle Ages. The Romanesque style combined Merovingian and late antique subjects, components of the Great Migration period. Byzantine and oriental elements entered the medieval art of Western Europe. The Romanesque style arose in the context of the development of feudalism and the spread of the ideology of the Catholic Church. The main construction, the creation of sculptures, and the design of manuscripts was carried out by monks. The church has been a source of dissemination of medieval art for quite a long time. The architecture was also iconic. The main distributors of the style at that time were the monastic orders. It was only towards the end of the 11th century that wandering artels of lay stonemasons began to emerge.

Architecture

Individual buildings and complexes (castles, churches, monasteries) in the Romanesque style were erected, as a rule, in rural areas. They dominated their surroundings, embodying the likeness of the “city of the Lord” or acting as a visual expression of the power of the feudal lord. Western medieval art was based on harmony. The clear silhouettes and compact forms of the buildings seemed to repeat and complete the landscape. As the main building material natural stone appeared. It harmonized perfectly with the greenery and soil. The main feature of buildings in the Romanesque style were massive walls. Their heaviness was emphasized by narrow window openings and deep stepped portals (passages). One of the key elements of the composition was considered high tower. Romanesque buildings were systems of stereometric simple volumes: prisms, cubes, parallelepipeds, cylinders. Their surface was divided by galleries, blades, and arched friezes. These elements rhythmized the massiveness of the walls, but did not violate their monolithic integrity.

Temples

They developed the types of centric and basilican churches inherited from early Christian architecture. In the latter, a tower or lantern was an integral element. Each main part of the temple was created as a separate spatial structure. Both externally and internally she was clearly separated from the rest. The overall impression was enhanced by the vaults. They were predominantly cross, cylindrical or cross-rib. Domes were installed on some churches.

Distinctive features of the decor

In the early stages, the Romanesque style played the main role. At the end of the 11th - beginning of the 12th centuries, when the configuration of walls and vaults became more complex, monumental reliefs entered the temple decor. They decorated portals, and often entire façade walls. Inside buildings they were applied to the capitals of columns. In the late Romanesque style, flat relief is replaced by a higher one, rich in effects of light and shadow, but preserving organic connection with the wall surface. Themes that expressed the formidable and limitless power of God occupied a central place in painting and sculpture. The figure of Christ predominated in strictly symmetrical compositions. As for narrative cycles on gospel and biblical themes, they took on a more dynamic and free character. Romanesque plastic art is distinguished by deviations from natural proportions. Due to this, the image of a person became the bearer of an overly expressive gesture or an element of ornament, without losing spiritual expressiveness.

Gothic

This concept was introduced during the Renaissance. Gothic art was considered "barbaric". The heyday of the Romanesque style is considered to be the X - XII centuries. When this period was defined, the chronological framework for the Gothic was limited. Thus, early, mature (high) and late (flaming) stages were distinguished. The development of Gothic was intensive in those countries where Catholicism dominated. It acted primarily as cult art based on religious themes and its purpose. Gothic was correlated with eternity and high irrational forces.

Features of formation

The art of medieval stained glass, sculpture, and architecture during the Gothic period inherited many elements from the Romanesque style. The cathedral occupied a special place. The development of Gothic was influenced by dramatic changes social structure. During that period, they began to form centralized states, cities grew and strengthened, secular forces began to emerge - trade, craft, urban, court and knightly circles. As social consciousness developed and technology improved, opportunities for aesthetic understanding of the surrounding world began to expand. New architectural trends began to take shape. Urban planning has become widespread. The city's architectural ensembles included secular and religious buildings, bridges, fortifications, and wells. In many cases, houses with arcades, warehouses and retail spaces on the ground floors were built on the main square of the city. The main streets branched off from it. Narrow facades of mostly two-story houses (rarely three-story) with high gables were lined along them. Cities began to be surrounded by powerful walls, which were decorated with travel towers. Royal ones began to gradually turn into entire complexes, including religious, palace and fortification buildings.

Sculpture

It acted as the main form of fine art. The cathedrals were decorated outside and inside with a large number of reliefs and statues. Compared to the Romanesque, it was distinguished by its dynamism, the figures facing each other and the audience. Interest began to appear in natural forms, in human beauty and feelings. The themes of motherhood, sacrificial fortitude, and moral suffering began to be interpreted in a new way. The image of Christ also underwent changes. In Gothic, the theme of martyrdom began to come to the fore. The cult of the Mother of God began to take shape in art. This happened almost at the same time as the worship of beautiful ladies. Often these two cults were intertwined. In many works, the Mother of God appeared in the form of a beautiful lady. At the same time, people retained their belief in miracles, fairy-tale monsters, and fantastic animals. Their images can be found in Gothic as often as in the Romanesque style.

India

This country is known throughout the world for its countless natural resources and magnificent handicrafts. From an early age, the children of the poor were accustomed to work. The education of sons and daughters of the nobility began in the fifth year of their life. They received their education in schools at churches or at home. Children from the Brahmin caste were taught at home by a teacher. The child had to honor the teacher and obey him in everything. The sons of warriors and princes studied military affairs and art public administration. Some monasteries acted as educational centers. The teaching there was conducted at the highest level. Such a center, for example, was the monastery in Noland. It functioned on income from one hundred villages, as well as from gifts from rulers. Some cities in medieval India had observatories. Mathematicians could calculate the volumes of bodies and the areas of figures, freely handle fractional numbers. Medicine was well developed in India. The books described the structure of the human body and internal organs. Indian doctors, using about 200 instruments and various means of pain relief, performed complex operations. To establish a diagnosis, doctors measured the patient’s body temperature, pulse, and visually examined the patient, paying attention to the color of the tongue and skin. Art and science in medieval India reached unprecedented heights.

Stone sculpture

It served as an architectural decoration. As a rule, sculpture was represented by decorative high reliefs. In them all the figures were closely connected. Movements, gestures, and poses of people look amazingly graceful and expressive. This is due to the influence on the development of sculpture of the art of dance, which has been widespread in India since ancient times. Even under Ashoka, cave cells and temples for hermits began to be created in the rocks. They were small in size and reproduced residential wooden buildings. In the northern regions of India, temples of elongated oval (parabolic) shape were built. A lotus umbrella was built on their top. In the south of the country, temples had the shape of a rectangular pyramid. Inside, the rooms were dark and low. They were called sanctuaries. Not every person could enter them. The courtyards of the temples were decorated with sculptures depicting epic scenes or interpreting in a symbolic form the veneration of the god for whose glory the temple was erected. Subsequently, in India, especially in the south of the country, there were so many sculptural elements that religious buildings acted as pedestals for them. Such, for example, are the temples in Orissa, Konarak, Khajuraho.

Classic works

During the Middle Ages, in most parts of India, net languages ​​were used to create them. At the same time, many poets also wrote in Sanskrit. This literature was at first a reworking of classical examples. However, over time it becomes more refined and designed for courtiers. Such a work, for example, was the poem "Ramacharita". Each of her verses contains double meaning, which can equate the deeds of King Rampal with the exploits of the epic Rama. In the Middle Ages, poetry mainly developed, however, by the 12th-13th centuries. the pose also began to appear. The works were written in Sanskrit in the genre of framed stories - stories connected by one end-to-end plot. This, for example, is the story of Kadambari. This work tells the story of two lovers who lived on earth twice in different guises. The satirical novel "The Adventure of the 10 Princes" ridicules rulers, ascetics, dignitaries and even gods.

Heyday

It falls on the IV-VI centuries. At that time, the northern part of India united into a powerful state. It was ruled by the kings of the Gupta dynasty. The medieval art that developed in these areas spread to the southern territories. Unique examples of that time have been preserved in the Buddhist monasteries and temples in Ajanta. In this area, from the 2nd century over the next nine centuries, 29 caves appeared. Their ceilings, walls, columns are painted with scenes from Buddhist legends and traditions, decorated with carvings and sculptures. Ajanta acted as a center not only of religion, but also of art and science. Currently, it symbolizes the greatness of the spirit of antiquity. Ajanta attracts many tourists from all over the world.