Campaign of the Prophetic Oleg to Constantinople. Official version. Prophetic Oleg, Prince

Plan
Introduction
1 Position of Byzantium
2 Oleg's trek through the Tale of Bygone Years
3 Treaty of 907
4 Information about Oleg’s campaign from other sources
5 Interpretations
6 Dating of the campaign
References
Russian-Byzantine War of 907

Introduction

The Russian-Byzantine War of 907 is the legendary victorious campaign of the ancient Russian prince Oleg against Constantinople.

The campaign is described in detail in the Tale of Bygone Years (early 12th century) and ended with the signing of a peace treaty in 907. Widely known in Russian society by the phrase: “The prophetic Oleg nailed his shield on the gates of Constantinople.” However, this raid is not mentioned in any Byzantine or other source, except ancient Russian chronicles. In 911, a new Russian-Byzantine treaty was concluded, the authenticity of which is not questioned.

1. Position of Byzantium

At the beginning of the 10th century, Byzantium was ruled by Emperor Leo VI the Philosopher, who came into conflict with the church hierarchs over his 4th marriage. The main enemy of Byzantium during this period of time were the Saracens, who attacked Byzantine possessions in Asia Minor and carried out sea raids from the south. The most famous raid was the capture of the Greek city of Thessalonica by the pirate Leo of Tripoli in July 904. The Byzantine fleet under the command of Drungarius Imerius was unable to interfere with the Saracen flotilla, which consisted of only 54 ships.

Taking advantage of the weakness of the empire, in the same year 904, the Bulgarian Tsar Simeon I took away part of the lands from Byzantium, which bought off with an annual tribute, regularly paying it until 913. In Europe at the beginning of the 10th century appeared new power, Hungarians who settled in Pannonia, defeating the Slavic state of Great Moravia. European chronicles would soon be filled with reports of Hungarian raids on neighboring countries, but in the 900s they posed a threat primarily to the Bulgarian kingdom, and Byzantine diplomacy tried to set them against Simeon I.

Of the events close in time to 907, the Byzantine chronicles note the victory of their fleet over the Saracen in October 906. In 907 and the following years, no major battles or wars were noted near Constantinople. The next battle took place in October 911 near Crete, in which the Byzantine fleet was defeated by the Saracens. 700 Rus fought for the Byzantines. In the summer of 913, the Bulgarian Tsar Simeon I made a victorious campaign under the walls of Constantinople, which ended in a peace treaty beneficial for the Bulgarians.

2. Oleg’s trek through the “Tale of Bygone Years”

“The Tale of Bygone Years,” the earliest surviving ancient Russian chronicle (beginning of the 12th century), begins the story of the campaign against Constantinople with a listing of the Slavic and Finno-Ugric peoples and tribes that Oleg attracted to the campaign:

“Per year 6415 (907). Oleg went against the Greeks, leaving Igor in Kyiv; He took with him many Varangians, and Slavs, and Chuds, and Krivichi, and Meryu, and Drevlyans, and Radimichi, and Polans, and Northerners, and Vyatichi, and Croats, and Dulebs, and Tiverts, known as interpreters: these were all called Greeks "Great Scythia". And with all these Oleg went on horses and in ships; and there were 2000 ships. And he came to Constantinople: the Greeks closed the Court, and the city was closed. And Oleg went ashore and began to fight, and committed many murders to the Greeks in the vicinity of the city, and broke many chambers, and burned churches. And those who were captured, some were dissected, others were tortured, others were shot, and some were thrown into the sea, and the Russians did many other evils to the Greeks, as enemies usually do.”

According to the chronicle, part of the army moved along the shore on horses, the other along the sea on 2 thousand ships, each of which could accommodate 40 people. However, the text of the Novgorod Chronicle of the younger edition, which, according to the historian Shakhmatov, contains in its original form part of the earliest unpreserved chronicle (Initial Code), does not speak of 2 thousand ships, but of 100 or 200 ships (“ And Oleg commanded to give tribute to the 100th, 200th ship..."). Historians avoid interpreting the unclear phrase of the initial chronicler of the 11th century, but from it the figure of 2000 ships is easily deduced by the later author of the Tale of Bygone Years (PVL). Otherwise, the author of the PVL follows the story of the Initial Code with a more precise indication of dates. The round figure of 200 ships could have been taken from the story of an earlier Russian raid on Constantinople in 860.

Then the legends begin in the description of the hike. Oleg put his ships on wheels and, with a fair wind, moved across the field to Constantinople. The frightened Greeks asked for peace and brought out poisoned wine and food, which Oleg did not accept. Then the Greeks agreed to Oleg’s conditions: pay 12 hryvnia to each soldier, make separate payments in favor of the princes of Kyiv, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Polotsk, Rostov, Lyubech and other cities. Novgorod was not included in the list of cities, which is consistent with the archaeological date of the city's formation (after 931). According to the PVL, the tribute is also indicated at 12 hryvnia " on the oarlock", which leaves the mounted participants of the campaign without remuneration.

In addition to one-time payments, a permanent tribute was imposed on Byzantium and an agreement was concluded (agreement of 907) regulating the stay and trade of Russian merchants in Byzantium. After mutual vows, Oleg hung a shield on the gates of Constantinople as a sign of victory, then ordered the Greeks to sew sails: for Rus' from pavolok (golden-woven silk), for the Slavs from coprina (plain silk). According to the chronicle, upon returning to Kyiv with rich booty, the people nicknamed Oleg the Prophetic.

Some analogy with sails made of precious fabrics can be traced in the Scandinavian saga about the future Norwegian king Olaf Tryggvason, recorded by the monk Odd at the end of the 12th century. Olaf served under Prince Vladimir in the 980s and made a trip to Byzantium, according to the saga, for baptism. One of his military raids is described as follows: “ They say after one great victory he turned home to Gardy [Rus]; They sailed then with such great pomp and magnificence that they had sails on their ships made of precious materials, and their tents were the same. »

If the ancient Russian chronicler talks about Rus'’s campaign against Constantinople in 860 exclusively from Byzantine sources (Amartol’s chronicle), then the story about the campaign in 907 is based only on local oral traditions, some of which are reflected in the Scandinavian sagas. Although the legends themselves may not correspond to historical reality, they indicate that the campaign took place, although it apparently developed differently than the chronicle describes it.

3. Treaty of 907

According to the PVL, after the victory, Oleg concluded peace in Constantinople on very favorable terms. Russians coming to the city were actually supported by the Byzantine authorities and did not pay taxes. The contract is retold in words, the formal procedural content is omitted.

In September 911 (according to the PVL in 912 due to the beginning of the new year on March 1), a new agreement was concluded, a list of which is given in full in the chronicle. The content of the 907 treaty does not overlap in any way with the 911 treaty, with the exception of the names of the ambassadors, but almost literally reproduces a fragment from the Russian-Byzantine treaty of 944. The table below conveys the text of the 907 treaty in accordance with fragments from later Russian-Byzantine treaties.

Treaty of 907	Treaties 911, 944, 971
Participants: Karl, Farlaf, Vermud, Rulav and Stemid (« Karla Farlof sent an ambassador to them in the city. Velmuda. and Stemid »)	Treaty of 911 Participants: Karl, Farlaf, Veremud, Rulav, Stemid and 10 more names. " We are from the Russian family. Carls. inegeld farlof. veremud. rulav. goads | Rowald. karn. frelav. rual. asset. truan li|doul fost. Stemid. like the messages from the olg of the Grand Duke of Rouska and from all those under his hand, the bright and great princes. and his great boyars. »
When the Russians come, let them take as much allowance for the ambassadors as they want; and if merchants come, let them take monthly food for 6 months: bread, wine, meat, fish and fruits. And let them give them a bathhouse - as much as they want [...] and trade as much as they need, without paying any fees...	no compliance in contracts
Treaty of 944 And those Russians who depart from here, let them take from us everything they need: food for the journey and what the boats need [...] If the Russians do not come for trade, then let them not take months. Let the prince punish his ambassadors and the Russians who come here so that they do not commit atrocities in the villages and in our country. And when they come, let them live near the church of St. Mammoth, and then we, the kings, will send your names to be written down, and let the ambassadors take a month, and the merchants a month, first those from the city of Kyiv, then from Chernigov, and from Pereyaslavl, and from other cities. Yes, they enter the city through one gate alone, accompanied by the Tsar’s husband without weapons, 50 people each...
Oleg and his husbands were taken to swear allegiance according to Russian law, and they swore by their weapons and Perun, their god, and Volos, the god of cattle, and established peace.	Treaty of 971 ... let [...] be cursed by the god in whom we believe - in Perun and Volos, the god of cattle, and let us be yellow as gold, and let us be flogged with our weapons.

4. Information about Oleg’s campaign from other sources

The Novgorod First Chronicle of the younger edition sets out events differently, naming two campaigns against Byzantium by Igor and his commander Oleg, dating them to 920 and 922:

And he had a governor named Oleg, a wise and brave man... In the summer of 6430. Oleg went to the Greeks and came to Tsaryugrad; and Greece closed Susud, and shut the city.

Moreover, the description of the campaign of 920 reproduces the well-documented campaign of Prince Igor in 941.

The Byzantine chronicle of Pseudo-Simeon (last third of the 10th century) tells about the Dews (Rus):

“The Ros, or also the Dromites, received their name from a certain powerful Ros, after they managed to escape the consequences of what the oracles predicted about them, thanks to some warning or divine illumination of the one who ruled over them. They were called Dromites because they could move quickly.”

Oleg's campaign against Byzantium. After the turbulent events of the 60s. 9th century Rus' retreats into the shadows for a while. Her voice is not heard on the international stage. Her diplomacy is silent. But Rus' does not freeze; rapid socio-economic processes are taking place, ancient Russian statehood is developing. It was after 860 that the north and south of the country - the Novgorod and Kiev lands - were united into a political whole. A political core of the East Slavic lands is being created, to which tribal unions of other tribes are joining one after another Eastern Slavs.

These events were associated with Oleg's campaign to the south. Moving from Novgorod at the head of a large army, consisting of Varangians, Novgorod Slovenes, Krivichi and non-Slavic warriors - Meri, Vesi, Chud, he captured Smolensk, Lyubech and appeared near Kiev. Askold and Dir, who reigned there, were killed, and Oleg remained in Kyiv, making it the center of his state. “Behold the mother of the Russian city,” he allegedly said. The Tale of Bygone Years reports this. Subsequently, Oleg annexed the lands of the Drevlyans, Northerners, Radimichi and, thus, united all the main Russian tribal unions under the rule of Kyiv. He freed the northerners and Radimichi from paying tribute to the Khazars. Only the Vyatichi, who were not included in Rus', continued to be dependent on the Khazar Khaganate.

Thus, not only were the internal political problems of unifying the East Slavic tribal unions into a single Russian state being solved, but the process of liberating Russian lands from the foreign yoke was also underway, and the state sovereignty of Rus' was strengthened.

At the same time, in order to further stabilize the international positions of Rus', the young unified state had to conclude two diplomatic agreements: one with the Varangians, the other with the Hungarians.

The Varangians - inhabitants of the southern shores of the Baltic Sea, possibly of Slavic origin, as proven by some domestic, including Soviet, historians, the closest neighbors of the Novgorod Slavs, Chud, Vesi and other northern tribes - have long attacked the Novgorod lands and even laid tribute on the Novgorod Slavs However, then the Varangian dominance was overthrown and tribute was eliminated. But, according to the chronicle, civil strife began in the Slavic lands, which led to the fact that the Novgorodians sent messengers to their neighbors with a request to send them a prince, since there was no “order” in their land and there was unrest. In the so-called Joachim Chronicle, the information of which was reflected in the work of the historian of the 18th century. V.N. Tatishchev, it was pointed out that the calling of the prince from the outside by the Novgorodians was explained by the dynastic crisis, the lack of an heir to the deceased Novgorod prince and the appeal of the Novgorodians to his relatives from the Baltic Slavs. Without going into the meaning of the legend about the “calling” of the Varangians, we note that later inviting the prince from outside remained a Novgorod tradition. The prince commanded the army and guarded the lands of the Novgorod principality. There is no doubt that the state originated here long before the calling of the Varangians. Let us remember that the Novgorodians, led by Bravlin, went to Chersonesos and Surozh back in the 9th century.

Rurik, and then Oleg, apparently contributed to the stabilization of power in the Novgorod lands. In 882 Oleg united Novgorod and Kyiv.

But the Varangians did not give up raiding the northwestern Russian lands, and then they would turn! dangerous neighbors into allies, Oleg concluded an agreement with him. The Tale of Bygone Years reports that Oleg “statutorily,” that is, punished, gave Novgorod! The Varangians received an annual tribute of 300 hryvnia “dividing the world.” Rus' provided them with this tribute right up to their deaths! Yaroslav the Wise, that is, until 1054. For almost 150 years, Rus' was buying off its warlike neighbors.

This kind of “peace” was quite in the spirit of the times. And it is not at all necessary that the weakest pay the strongest. Sometimes Byzantium, the Arab Caliphate, and Persia are powerful states early Middle Ages- paid regular tribute to their neighbors in order to secure their borders from their raids. Let us remember that back in the 6th century. Byzantine Emperor Justinian I paid the Slavs large sums of money for peace on their northern borders.

But not only peace was bought in this way, but also allied aid. And in this case, there is reason to think that the Varangians from then on became permanent allies of Rus' in its military enterprises. They went to Constantinople with Oleg and Igor. They were constantly called upon by Russian princes in moments of danger.

By setting themselves large-scale government tasks, fighting for the unification of Russian lands, preparing for the continuation and development of international activities, Russian rulers provided themselves with a calm rear, which was also a certain diplomatic measure.

Forced contract. At the end of the 9th century. Prince Oleg concluded another diplomatic treaty.

In 898, nomadic hordes of Hungarians, or Ugrians, as the Russian chronicle calls them, appeared near Kiev. The Hungarians approached the Dnieper and became “vezhas,” that is, they set up their fortified camp here. The chronicler does not provide any other information about the events near Kiev: he either does not know them or does not want to report them. But in the surviving Hungarian sources this mysterious veil is lifted and the reason for the silence of the Russian chronicle, which, as a rule, reflected the version of events from its own point of view, becomes clear.

Unknown Hungarian author of the 11th century. tells how, moving west, the nomadic Hungarians reached the Kyiv lands and “wanted to subjugate the kingdom of the Rus.” The Russian prince (and Oleg was reigning in Kyiv at that time) decided to give them battle, set out to meet the enemy, but was defeated by the troops of the Hungarian leader Almos. Almosh's warriors pursued the Russians all the way to the walls of Kyiv, where Oleg locked himself in. We can trust this information, because the Russian chronicle also speaks of the appearance of an enemy under the walls of Kyiv. It is difficult to imagine that the Hungarians would be allowed so close without engaging in battle with them. Further, the chronicler reports that the Hungarians “subjugated the land of the Rus,” although from the text itself it is only clear that we are talking about the typical actions of conquerors in a foreign country, and not about long-term possession of the region: the Hungarians plundered the nearby lands, took a lot of booty, and then went to attack the Kyiv walls. The Russians asked for peace, and their embassy came to the Almos camp.

The Hungarians demanded hostages, payment of an annual tribute of 10 thousand marks, provision of food, clothing and other necessary things. The Russians set their own condition: the Hungarians must leave Russian lands. The parties agreed on this. The Hungarians went west, and Rus', apparently, continued to pay them tribute. This assumption is based on the fact that in subsequent decades Rus' and Hungary invariably turned out to be allies and together attacked the Byzantine Empire.

Having secured his borders in the north-west, pacifying the nomadic Hungarians, agreeing on a military alliance with both the Varangians and the Hungarians, uniting the Russian lands, Oleg began to realize the longed-for goal of the Russian princes of recent decades - establishing the international authority of the Russian state, increasing its international prestige , defending the interests of the emerging class of feudal lords and wealthy merchants in the country's foreign policy.

And again the eyes of the Russian prince turn to Constantinople. In 907, the Tale of Bygone Years reports that Oleg undertook a new grandiose campaign against the Byzantine capital. He brought with him the Varangians, Slovenes, Krivichi, Drevlyans, Radimichi, Polyans, Northerners, Croats, Dulebs, Tivertsi, Vyatichi, as well as foreign-language peoples - Chud and Meryu. The army marched “on horseback and on ships,” that is, both by sea and by land. As for the sea, everything is clear here: Oleg’s ships sailed down the Dnieper, then went out into the Black Sea and moved along its western coast towards the Bosphorus. This was the usual route for Russian armies and merchant caravans. As for the cavalry, it could only reach the walls of the Byzantine capital through the territory of Bulgaria, where a powerful ruler, Tsar Simeon the Great, ruled during these years. How could it happen that the Russians violated the sovereignty of Bulgaria? It seems that everything here was much more complicated: Oleg went to Byzantium, having already secured the support of Bulgaria, having agreed with Simeon on the unhindered passage of the Russian army.

At that time, Bulgaria waged a long and exhausting struggle with Byzantium. As soon as he ascended the throne in 893, Simeon began military operations against the empire, seeking to increase his territories at the expense of Byzantine lands in the Balkans, trying to establish the privileged position of the Bulgarian merchants in the Byzantine markets. In 904, both sides made peace, which was not durable. Bulgaria was preparing to continue the struggle, and Byzantium had difficulty fighting off the Arabs pressing on all sides. In 907, the year of the Russian attack, the main troops of the empire went to fight the Arabs. The capital was practically defenseless. A conspiracy against the existing government was brewing within it. It was this favorable moment that Oleg chose to attack. Scientists believe that Bulgaria secretly helped Rus', allowed its troops to pass through its territory, and provided the Russians with the necessary information. This means that a secret alliance agreement was concluded between Bulgaria and Russia at that time.

What were the reasons for the Russian attack on Constantinople? What did they achieve with their campaign? This will be best seen from the subsequent Russian-Byzantine treaty of 907, but even now we can say that the triumph of 860 began to be forgotten. Other persons appeared on the Russian throne; those who concluded a peace unfavorable for the empire with Russia, according to which the Russians turned out to be essentially winners, also left the political arena of Byzantium. It is possible that the Byzantines began to violate its terms, especially in terms of privileges for Russian merchants. It is possible that with a new victorious campaign Oleg wanted to increase his power and the international prestige of the Russian state. Production also occupied not the least place in these calculations.

The trip was successful. Weakened by the lack of troops, Constantinople was unable to provide adequate resistance to the Russians. The Greeks only managed to close the harbor with a chain and block the Russian boats from approaching the very walls of the city. First, the Russian army devastated the suburbs of the capital, took away enormous wealth and prisoners, and then, according to the chronicle, the boats were put on wheels and directed towards the city, i.e. the ships moved on rollers and could protect the advancing Russian soldiers from arrows. The Greeks could not withstand the onslaught of the Russians and asked for peace.

The reasons that prompted Oleg to attack Constantinople are already known to us from previous Rus’ raids on the capital of Byzantium: on the one hand, this is the desire of the new ruler of Dnieper Rus' to obtain recognition of his status from the empire and thereby confirm and extend the validity of the “Russian”-Byzantine treaty; on the other hand, the reluctance of the imperial authorities to be in allied relations with the pagans and provide them with trade and any other benefits. The immediate cause of the conflict, judging by the text of the 911 treaty, was some kind of skirmishes between the Rus and the Greeks, in which it came down to a “strike with a sword.”

Oleg's campaign against Constantinople is described in detail in The Tale of Bygone Years. The “conspiracy of silence” that surrounds this event in Byzantine literature appears in striking contrast to the chronicler’s awareness. However, there is still one indirect evidence. In Leo the Deacon we find news that Emperor John Tzimiskes threatened Prince Svyatoslav Igorevich with the fate of his father, who “disdained the oath agreement” - this, of course, is a clear allusion to the previous Byzantine-“Russian” agreement, violated by Igor in 941.

Unfortunately, the detail of the chronicle story does not at all guarantee the accuracy of the information it conveys. First of all, this concerns chronology. The Tale of Bygone Years dates Oleg's campaign against Constantinople to 907. At the same time, it dates preliminary negotiations with the Greeks, the results of which received legal formalization only in 911, when the second, “expanded” embassy of Prince Oleg signed the famous treaty. The reasons for this diplomatic delay are left without any explanation. The chronicler simply filled the resulting time gap with “empty years.” It is difficult to say what considerations motivated him in this case 1 . But in fact, both events occurred in the same year, evidence of which can be found in the “Tale” itself. In the article marked 907, Oleg’s ambassadors negotiate with the “King of the Walnuts,” the brothers “Leon and Alexander.” Meanwhile, this message can only be true in relation to 911, because it was in this year that Emperor Leo VI the Wise appointed Alexander as his co-ruler. Thus, the standing of “Rus” under the walls of Constantinople most likely lasted throughout August 911 and ended on September 2, the day the treaty was signed.

The entire article 907 is no more reliable than the date set. This is no wonder, because the chronicler, in fact, composed a hymn in honor of the prophetic prince, in whose person the Russian land triumphed over the Greeks. To take the hymns at their word would, of course, be naive. When reading the story of Oleg’s overseas exploits, it should be remembered that the relationship between history and poetry here is approximately the same as between the Iliad and the real siege of Troy.

The epic grandeur of the campaign planned by Oleg becomes obvious from the very first lines. He allegedly manages to assemble a huge fleet - 2000 “ships”. The chronicler needs this fantastic figure, of course, only in order to send along with Oleg all his “Tolkoviny” (allies) - “many Varangians, and Slovenians, and Chud, and Krivichi, and Meryu, and Derevlyans, and Radimichi, and Polyans , and the North, and the Vyatichi, and the Croats, and the Dulebs, and the Tivertsy” (moreover, the last four Slavic tribes, according to the chronicle narrative itself, have not yet been “tortured” by the Kyiv princes as tribute). But even this armada of “ships” is not capable of accommodating all of Oleg’s “warriors”, of which, we note, there are already 80,000 (based on 40 people per boat - the number indicated in the chronicle), so the other part of them “went” to Constantinople by land , “on horseback,” although equestrian squads among the Rus and Eastern Slavs did not yet exist.

Having mobilized the entire Russian land under Oleg’s banners, the chronicler, however, failed to properly dispose of this countless army. It is literally melting before our eyes. The horse army is the first to disappear, since Oleg’s treaty requires tribute from the Greeks only for the “men” in the “ships”. And then, as if all the Varangian-Finno-Slavic “talkies” fall through the ground, instead of which “Rus” suddenly appears, whose interests are the only ones taken into account in negotiations with the “kings”. This turn of events convinces us that in fact the naval campaign of 911 was carried out by the forces of Oleg’s squad; The militia of the East Slavic tribes did not participate in the raid.

However, in the list of “interpretations” worthy of attention are the “Slovenians”, who later appear in the joke with the sails: “And Oleg said: “Sew the sails of the Russians, and the Slovenes are sprinkled,” and so it was... And Rus' raised the sails of the Slovenes, and the Slovenes are sprinkled, and the wind tore them apart; and deciding to the Slovenes: “let’s take our thick sails [sails made of rough canvas], the essence of the Slovenes’ sails is not given.” Pavoloka in Rus' was the name for expensive fabric of two types: silk and “paper” (cotton). The “Slovenians” also got “woolly” sails, but made of cotton fabric - easily torn (“crumbly”). The meaning of the anecdote is apparently the same as in the fairy tale about tops and roots: dividing the expensive “pavoloks” looted from the Greeks - silk and paper stock - the “Slovenians” were flattered by something more luxurious and durable in appearance than silk, but unsuitable for seaworthiness. actually fabric.

Here the chronicler is clearly retelling a “Russian” squad legend known to him, which depicts some kind of conflict between “Rus” and the “Slovenes” over the division of booty or squad “honor”. Moreover, the “Slovenes” were among the “tolkovins” only due to the fact that they are actors this anecdote, and only to give the chronicler the opportunity to tell it (the chronicler knows nothing else about the “Slovenians”). In the mouth of a Kyiv scribe of the 11th century. the story with the sails sounds like a mockery of the Novgorodians, rivals of the “Polyan-Rus”. Therefore, “Slovenians” are inserted into the list of “interpretations” immediately after the Varangians, and, being in this place, they should designate Ilmen Slovenians. Despite the fact that the chronicler in this case went from anecdote to history, all commentators on this passage still call the “Slovenes” Novgorodians. Meanwhile, the Slavic contingent of the “Russian” army, apparently, was represented by Moravian and Croatian warriors, perhaps led by the governor (the motive of rivalry between the squads of the prince and the governor is developed later in the “Tale”, in the plot of the Drevlyan tribute). It is characteristic that the text of the agreement does not mention “Slovenians”. This could only happen if they were part of “Rus” - a circumstance that was quite natural for the Croats and Moravans who came to Kyiv along with Oleg’s Rusyns, and completely impossible for the Ilmen Slovenes.

In light of the above, a tenfold reduction in the number of Oleg’s “ships” will look like the most likely figure. By the way, this is exactly what the incredulous editor of the Commission List of the Novgorod First Chronicle did.

The description of military operations at the walls of Constantinople again raises the question of the actual relationship of the entire chronicle article of 907 to the “legends of deep antiquity” and, even more so, to the “memoirs of the participants in the campaign.” It was noted, for example, that the story about the robberies and robberies of “Rus” in the vicinity of Constantinople (“and you fought near the city, and committed many murders to the Greeks, and destroyed many chambers, and burned the churches; and in their name, the plunderers, some were flogged, others were tormented , some I shot, and others were swept into the sea, and I did a lot of evil to Rus' to the Greeks, as much as they did wars") is compiled from reports of two Byzantine sources - the Continuator of the Chronicle of George Amartol and the Life of Vasily the New - about the attack on Constantinople by Prince Igor in 941 .( Shakhmatov A. A. “The Tale of Bygone Years” and its sources // Proceedings of the Department of Old Russian Literature of the Institute of Russian Literature of the USSR Academy of Sciences, IV. M.; L., 1940. S. 54 - 57, 69 - 72). This gave rise to a number of researchers to argue that the 911 treaty “has no hint of hostile relations between the Russians and the Greeks” ( Bakhrushin S.V. Works on source study, historiography and history of Russia in the era of feudalism. M., 1987. S. 30 - 31; Tikhomirov M.N. Historical connections of Russia with the Slavic countries and Byzantium. M., 1969. P. 109). There is some truth in these arguments, but it would be wrong to completely deny the authenticity of the chronicle account of the atrocities of the Rus. In the medieval and, in particular, ancient Russian literature there are many descriptions of real events using (sometimes verbatim) ancient, biblical, etc. "model" texts ( Bibikov M.V. Byzantine historical prose. M., 1996. S. 30 - 31). Meanwhile, the text of Oleg’s treaty retained clear traces of the fact that the swords of the Rus were stained with the blood of civilians this time too Byzantine Empire. Its “chapters” open with a statement about the end of violence: “At the first word, let us make peace with you, Greeks,” and at preliminary negotiations, Emperors Leo and Alexander demanded that the Russians no longer “do dirty tricks in the villages and in our country.”

But the cited criticisms are correct in the sense that there really was no “Russian-Byzantine war,” that is, full-scale military action, in 911. Oleg did not sail to Constantinople to fight with Byzantium; the demonstration of military force was supposed to persuade the Greeks to conclude a peace treaty. Oleg's strategic plan was to break into the Golden Horn Bay (the Byzantine fleet at that time was involved in naval operations against the Arabs in the Mediterranean). This vulnerable spot of the Byzantine stronghold had been known to the Russians since 860. Then they managed to take the city by surprise. But now, for some reason, the surprise attack failed, and the entrance to the bay was securely blocked by a chain stretched between both banks. And yet Oleg carried out a maneuver, thanks to which, 542 years later, Mehmed II entered the Church of Hagia Sophia as a winner. At this point in his story, the chronicler again resorts to poeticization of history: “And Oleg commanded his howls to make wheels and put ships on wheels, and with a fair wind they raised the sails... and went to the city.” The peninsula separating the inner harbor of Constantinople from the sea is covered with vineyards, arable land and quite mountainous; in order to make the boats placed on wheels here move, a wind of such extraordinary strength is needed that it would rather disrupt the entire enterprise than help it to be realized. But there is nothing incredible in the very fact of transporting the boats overland to the Golden Horn Bay. Of course, the ships were unlikely to be placed on wheels; rather, they were placed on round rollers and pulled by a drag. Wood in the required quantity could be obtained without difficulty - the Thracian forests were then approaching Constantinople itself.

The success of this maneuver stunned the Greeks. Seeing enemy ships floating in the middle of the bay, which was considered inaccessible, the co-emperors agreed to begin negotiations with Oleg. They were also forced to take this step by the repentant mood that gripped the population of the capital. Suddenly they remembered how several years before, in 904, the imperial authorities refused to help Thessalonica, which was under siege by the Arabs. The inhabitants of Thessalonica were outraged that they were left to the mercy of fate, and prophesied that Saint Demetrius, the patron saint of the city, would certainly punish Constantinople for this betrayal. And now in the capital on every corner one could hear: “It is not Oleg, but Saint Dmitry himself who was sent to us by God.” It was unthinkable to resist the heavenly punishment. Further intransigence of the government to the demands of the barbarians, who merely sought to have a profitable bargain in the Constantinople market, threatened to lead to open rebellion. Both of these circumstances—Oleg’s seizure of the territory of the Golden Horn and the tense situation inside the city—provided unforgettable diplomatic success for the ambassadors “of Russian descent.”

Oleg's treaty with the Greeks

The signing of a long-term peace treaty was preceded by negotiations to end hostilities. Oleg wanted to receive a “tribute” - a ransom for his “warriors”. This place in the Tale is generally quite dark. The chronicler gives a double calculation of tribute: first, Oleg “commanded” to give tribute “for 2000 ships, 12 hryvnia per person, and 40 men per ship”; but his ambassadors, who came to Constantinople, asked to “give 12 hryvnia per key to the wars for 2000 ships.” Historians have explained the obvious discrepancy between the sizes of these two tributes in different ways. But few people took into account the capabilities of the imperial treasury and considerations of imperial prestige. Even if, following the Novgorod I Chronicle, we estimate the strength of Oleg’s army at 8,000 people (200 rooks of 40 soldiers each), then the tribute required for them will be 96,000 hryvnia or 2,304,000 spools (the hryvnia of the early 10th century was equal to about a third of a pound, that is, 24 Byzantine spools). Here we must remember that the Byzantine treasury received approximately 8,000,000 zolotniks annually and that Emperor Mauritius quarreled to death with the Avar Khagan Bayan over 100,000 zolotniks - an amount 23 times less than what we received as a result of a tenfold reduction in the number of Oleg’s soldiers! (According to the chronicle, it turns out that Oleg demanded to pay him three annual budgets of the empire - another evidence of the fantastic nature of the chronicle calculation of his army.) But international status The Avar Kagan far exceeded the dignity of the “blessed Russian prince.”

It seems that the tribute of 12 hryvnia per warrior is a creation of the heated imagination of ancient Russian warriors, which was included in the chronicle from their “Constantinople” legends. The two systems of calculating tribute probably reflect the fact that Oleg, excited achieved success, at first he asked for too much, but then, during negotiations, he agreed to take it “according to rank.” The expression “12 hryvnia per key” is usually understood as payment per key (steering) oar, that is, per boat. However, V. Dal in his dictionary (article “Klyuch”) also indicates that among the Western Slavs the word “key” means an estate of several villages and hamlets with a town, governed by a key. “Oleg’s rook power,” he writes, “was probably divided into keys according to the volosts from which the boats were deployed, or according to private commanders over the keys, departments of people.” Considering Oleg’s Carpathian origin, perhaps this interpretation of the size of the tribute received from the Greeks should be preferred. Another part of the tribute was given in precious things and products. Returning to Kyiv, Oleg took with him “gold, and grass, and vegetables, and wine, and all sorts of ornaments.”

Another important point of the negotiations was the “structures” that the Greeks pledged to “give to Russian cities.” The text immediately following the list of cities regulates the conditions of detention of “Russian” ambassadors and merchants: “let them eat a month for 6 months, bread and wine, and meat, and fish, and vegetables; and let them give them [bath] as much [as] they want; and then go home to Rus', and let them take from our Tsar on the way the brush, and the anchors, and the ropes, and the sails, and whatever else they need.” With the second mention of cities, the agreement determines the order of trade for Russian merchants: “and let them enter the city through the same gates with the Tsar’s husband, without weapons, 50 men each, and let them make purchases as they need, without paying a toll [duties] in any way.” what." Thus, by “way of life” we must understand the trade charter, which stipulates the rules of trade of the Rus on the Constantinople market. As we see, Oleg achieved extremely favorable conditions for the “Russian” merchants: they received support from the imperial treasury and were exempt from duties.

The agreement was sealed with an oath. Emperors Leo and Alexander “kissed the cross themselves, and Olga took the company [oath], and his men, according to Russian law, swore by their weapons, and by Perun, their god, and Volos, the god of cattle, and established peace.” The name Volos does not at all prove that among Oleg’s ambassadors there were representatives of the Slavic aristocracy of Kyiv. This deity was also known to the Western Slavs and, most likely, the ambassadors who swore by Volos belonged to the Croats or Moravians.

On September 2, fourteen “men from the Russian family” signed a written agreement on “irreversible and shameless” love between the Rus and the Greeks. His articles can be divided into four main sections:

1. The procedure for examining and punishing criminal offenses committed by the Russians or Greeks against each other on the territory of the Byzantine Empire. Murder, as required by imperial law, was punishable by death and confiscation of property, with the exception of that part that was due to the murderer's wife. For inflicting bodily harm, a fine was imposed on the perpetrator (“five liters of silver according to Russian law”), and if he was “incompetent,” then he had to remove “the very ports” from himself. The caught thief was exacted three times the amount taken; if they resisted capture, the owner of the stolen property could kill him with impunity. The verdict was passed only on the basis of irrefutable evidence; at the slightest suspicion of falsity of testimony, the opposing party had the right to reject it, swearing “according to their faith.” Perjury was punishable by execution. The parties agreed to extradite the escaped criminals to each other.

2. Providing mutual assistance on the territory of other states. In the event of a shipwreck of a Byzantine merchant ship near the coast of any other country, the nearby “Russian” merchants were obliged to take the ship and crew under guard and escort the cargo to the borders of the empire or to a safe place. If trouble overtook the Greeks near the “Russian land”, then the ship was transported to the latter, the goods were sold and the proceeds were to be transported to Constantinople with the first embassy or trade caravan. Violence, murders and robberies committed by the Russians on the ship were punished in the above manner. The agreement is silent about the fact that “Russian” merchants had the right to demand the same from the Greeks. This circumstance is probably due to the fact that the Rus went on trade expeditions in entire flotillas (according to rough estimates, one trade caravan arriving from Kyiv to Constantinople in the middle of the 10th century consisted of at least a thousand people - see. Konstantin Porphyrogenitus. About managing an empire. Note 63. P. 329). The large number of “Russian” merchants is also reflected in the Greek demand to limit their access to Constantinople: they had to enter the city through one gate in groups of 50 people. It is clear that with such a scale of trading enterprises, the Rus did not need outside help.

3. Redemption of “Russian” and Greek slaves and prisoners of war and capture of fugitive slaves. Seeing a Greek captive at the slave market, the “Russian” merchant had to ransom him; The Greek merchant was obliged to do the same in relation to the captive Rus. In the homeland of the slave, the merchant received a ransom amount for him or the average price of the slave at the current exchange rate (“20 zlotys”). In the event of a "rati" (war) between the "Russian Land" and Byzantium, a ransom of prisoners of war was provided for - again at the average price of a slave. Runaway or stolen “Russian” slaves were to be returned to their owners; the latter could search for them on the territory of the empire, and the Greek who resisted the search of his house was considered guilty.

4. Conditions for hiring Russians for military service. When announcing the recruitment of mercenaries into the army, the Byzantine emperors were obliged to recruit into the service all the Rus who wished it, and for the period that would suit the mercenaries themselves (the Rus sought long-term mercenary service, up to lifelong). The property of a killed or deceased mercenary, in the absence of a will, was transferred to his neighbor “to Rus'.”

The negotiations ended with a solemn ceremony, which was supposed to show the barbarians the power of the empire and encourage Oleg to follow the example of previous “Russian” princes who converted to Christianity. The Russian ambassadors were invited to the Church of Hagia Sophia to inspect Christian shrines: “Tsar Leon honored the Russian ambassadors with gifts, gold and pavilions... and put your men to them, show them the church beauty, and the golden plates, and in them real wealth: there is a lot of gold , and trails, and precious stones, and the passion of the Lord, a crown and a nail, and a scarlet robe, and the relics of saints, teaching them to their faith and showing them the true faith; and so release them to your land with great honor.” But it seems that none of the Rus wanted to abandon pagan errors.

Before leaving his camp, Oleg once again confirmed his firm intention to maintain “incorruptible and shameless love” with the Greeks, ordering his shield to be hung on the city gates, “showing victory.” This symbolic act is usually interpreted in a completely opposite sense - as a sign of the victory of the Rus over Byzantium. However, the word “victory” in the 11th - 12th centuries. it also had the meaning of “protection, patronage” (cf. victorious - “intercessor, defender” in the Assumption Collection). Likewise, the shield nowhere and never symbolized victory, but only protection, peace, cessation of warfare. The raising of his shield by the leader of the army during a battle meant a call for the start of peace negotiations; in 1204, noble crusaders hung their shields on the doors of the houses they occupied in Constantinople to prevent other knights from plundering them. The prophetic prince left his talisman to the Greeks, which was supposed to protect the city from enemy attacks; he was returning to his

Per year 6415 ( 907 ). I went Oleg against the Greeks, leaving Igor in Kyiv; He took with him many Varangians, and Slavs, and Chuds, and Krivichi, and Merya, and Drevlyans, and Radimichi, and Polans, and Northerners, and Vyatichi, and Croats, and Dulebs, and Tiverts, known as interpreters: these were all called by the Greeks "Great Scythia". And I went with them all Oleg on horses and in ships; and there were 2000 ships. And he came to Constantinople: the Greeks closed Court, and the city was closed. And went out Oleg ashore, and began to fight, and committed many murders to the Greeks in the vicinity of the city, and broke many chambers, and burned churches. And those who were captured, some were dissected, others were tortured, others were shot, and some were thrown into the sea, and the Russians did many other evils to the Greeks, as enemies usually do.

And he commanded Oleg make wheels for your warriors and put ships on wheels. And when a fair wind blew, they raised sails in the field and went to the city. The Greeks, seeing this, were frightened and said, sending to Oleg: “Don’t destroy the city, we’ll give you whatever tribute you want.” And stopped Oleg soldiers, and brought him food and wine, but did not accept it, since it was poisoned. And the Greeks were afraid and said: “This is not Oleg, But Saint Demetrius, sent against us by God." And he ordered Oleg give tribute for 2000 ships: 12 each hryvnia per person, and there were 40 husbands in each ship.

And the Greeks agreed to this, and the Greeks began to ask for peace so that the Greek land would not fight. Oleg Having moved a little away from the capital, he began negotiations for peace with the Greek kings Leon and Alexander and sent Karl, Farlaf, Vermud, Rulav and Stemid to their capital with the words: “Pay me tribute.” And the Greeks said: “We will give you whatever you want.” And Oleg ordered to give his soldiers for 2000 ships 12 hryvnia per rowlock, and then give tribute to Russian cities: first of all for Kyiv, then for Chernigov, for Pereyaslavl, for Polotsk, for Rostov, for Lyubech and for other cities: for according to In these cities sit the great princes, subject to Oleg. “When the Russians come, let them take as much allowance for the ambassadors as they want; and if merchants come, let them take monthly food for 6 months: bread, wine, meat, fish and fruits. And let them give them a bathhouse - as much as they want. When will the Russians go home , let them take food, anchors, ropes, sails and whatever else they need from the king for the journey.” And the Greeks obliged, and the kings and all the boyars said: “If the Russians do not come for trade, then let them not take their monthly allowance; let the Russian prince, by his decree, prohibit the Russians who come here from committing atrocities in the villages and in our country. Let the Russians who come here live near the church Saint Mammoth, and they will send them from our kingdom, and write down their names, then they will take their monthly allowance - first those who came from Kyiv, then from Chernigov, and from Pereyaslavl, and from other cities. And let them only enter the city. through one gate, accompanied by the king’s husband, without weapons, 50 people each, and trade as much as they need, without paying any fees.”

Kings Leon and Alexander made peace with Oleg, pledged to pay tribute and swore allegiance to each other: they themselves kissed the cross, and Oleg and his husbands were taken to swear allegiance according to Russian law, and they swore by their weapons and Perun, their god, and Volos, the god of cattle, and established peace. And he said Oleg: “Sew sails from fibers for Rus', and coprine for the Slavs,” and so it was. And he hung his shield on the gates as a sign of victory, and left Constantinople. And the Russians raised sails of grass, and the Slavs raised their sails, and the wind tore them apart; and the Slavs said: “Let’s take our thicknesses; the Slavs were not given sails made of pavolok.” And he returned Oleg to Kyiv, carrying gold, and grass, and fruits, and wine, and all kinds of ornaments. And they nicknamed Oleg Prophetic, since the people were pagans and unenlightened.

6417 (909) per year. 6418 (910) per year. Per year 6419 ( 911 ). A large star in the form of a spear appeared in the west.

Per year 6420 ( 912 ). Sent Oleg their husbands to make peace and establish an agreement between the Greeks and Russians, saying this: “A list from the agreement concluded under the same kings Leo and Alexander. We are from the Russian family - Karla, Inegeld, Farlaf, Veremud, Rulav, Gudy, Ruald, Karn, Frelav, Ruar, Aktevu, Truan, Lidul, Fost, Stemid - sent from Oleg, the Grand Duke of Russia, and from everyone who is under his hand - the bright and great princes, and his great boyars, to you, Leo, Alexander and Constantine, the great autocrats in God, the Greek kings, to strengthen and certify long-term friendship, which was between Christians and Russians, at the request of our great princes and by command, from all the Russians under his hand. Our Lordship, desiring above all in God to strengthen and certify the friendship that constantly existed between Christians and Russians, decided fairly, not only in words, but also in writing, and with a firm oath, swearing with their weapons, to confirm such friendship and certify it by faith and according to our law.

These are the essence of the chapters of the agreement regarding which we have committed ourselves by God's faith and friendship. With the first words of our agreement, we will make peace with you, Greeks, and we will begin to love each other with all our souls and with all our good will, and we will not allow any deception or crime to occur from those under the hands of our bright princes, since this is in our power; but we will try, as much as we can, to maintain with you, Greeks, in future years and forever an unchangeable and unchanging friendship, expressed and committed to a letter with confirmation, certified by an oath. Likewise, you, Greeks, maintain the same unshakable and unchanging friendship for our bright Russian princes and for everyone who is under the hand of our bright prince always and in all years.

And about the chapters concerning possible atrocities, we will agree as follows: let those atrocities that are clearly certified be considered indisputably committed; and whichever they do not believe, let the party that seeks to swear that this crime will not be believed; and when that party swears, let the punishment be whatever the crime turns out to be.

About this: if anyone kills a Russian Christian or a Russian Christian, let him die at the scene of the murder. If the murderer runs away and turns out to be a rich man, then let the relative of the murdered man take that part of his property that is due by law, but let the murderer’s wife also keep what is due to her by law. If the escaped murderer turns out to be indigent, then let him remain on trial until he is found, and then let him die.

If someone strikes with a sword or beats with any other weapon, then for that blow or beating let him give 5 liters of silver according to Russian law; If the one who committed this offense is poor, then let him give as much as he can, so that let him take off the very clothes in which he walks, and about the remaining unpaid amount, let him swear by his faith that no one can help him, and let him not this balance is collected from him.

About this: if a Russian steals something from a Christian or, on the contrary, a Christian from a Russian, and the thief is caught by the victim at the very time when he commits the theft, or if the thief prepares to steal and is killed, then his death will not be exacted from either Christians or from Russians; but let the victim take back what he lost. If the thief gives himself up voluntarily, then let him be taken by the one from whom he stole, and let him be bound, and give back what he stole in triple the amount.

About this: if one of the Christians or one of the Russians attempts (robbery) through beatings and clearly takes by force something belonging to another, then let him return it in triple amount.

If a boat is thrown by a strong wind onto a foreign land and one of us Russians is there and helps save the boat with its cargo and send it back to the Greek land, then we carry it through every dangerous place until it comes to a safe place; If this boat is delayed by a storm or has run aground and cannot return to its place, then we, Russians, will help the rowers of that boat and see them off with their goods in good health. If the same misfortune happens to a Russian boat near the Greek land, then we will take it to the Russian land and let them sell the goods of that boat, so if it is possible to sell anything from that boat, then let us, the Russians, take it (to the Greek shore). And when we (we, Russians) come to the Greek land for trade or as an embassy to your king, then (we, Greeks) will honor the sold goods of their boat. If any of us Russians who arrived with the boat happen to be killed or something is taken from the boat, then let the culprits be sentenced to the above punishment.

About these: if a captive of one side or another is forcibly held by Russians or Greeks, having been sold into their country, and if, in fact, he turns out to be Russian or Greek, then let them ransom and return the ransomed person to his country and take the price of those who bought him, or let it be The price offered for it was that of servants. Also, if he is captured by those Greeks in the war, still let him return to his country and his usual price will be given for him, as already said above.

If there is a recruitment into the army and these (Russians) want to honor your king, no matter how many of them come at what time, and want to stay with your king of their own free will, then so be it.

More about the Russians, about the prisoners. Those who came from any country (captive Christians) to Rus' and were sold (by the Russians) back to Greece or captive Christians brought to Rus' from any country - all of these must be sold for 20 zlatnikov and returned to Greek land.

About this: if a Russian servant is stolen, either runs away, or is forcibly sold and the Russians begin to complain, let them prove this about their servants and take him to Rus', but the merchants, if they lose the servant and appeal, let them demand it in court and, when they find , - they will take it. If someone does not allow an inquiry to be carried out, he will not be recognized as right.

And about the Russians serving in the Greek land with the Greek king. If someone dies without disposing of his property, and he does not have his own (in Greece), then let his property return to Rus' to his closest younger relatives. If he makes a will, then the one to whom he wrote to inherit his property will take what was bequeathed to him, and let him inherit it.

About Russian traders.

ABOUT different people who go to the Greek land and remain in debt. If the villain does not return to Rus', then let the Russians complain to the Greek kingdom, and he will be captured and returned by force to Rus'. Let the Russians do the same to the Greeks if the same thing happens.

As a sign of the strength and immutability that should be between you, Christians, and Russians, we created this peace treaty with Ivan’s writing on two charters - your Tsar and with our own hand - we sealed it with an oath of the honorable cross and the holy consubstantial Trinity of your one true God and given to our ambassadors. We swore to your king, appointed by God, as a divine creation, according to our faith and custom, not to violate for us and anyone from our country any of the established chapters of the peace treaty and friendship. And this writing was given to your kings for approval, so that this agreement would become the basis for the approval and certification of the peace that exists between us. The month of September is 2, index 15, in the year from the creation of the world 6420."

Tsar Leon honored the Russian ambassadors with gifts - gold, and silks, and precious fabrics - and assigned his husbands to show them the church beauty, the golden chambers and the wealth stored in them: a lot of gold, pavoloks, precious stones and the passion of the Lord - a crown, nails , scarlet and the relics of the saints, teaching them their faith and showing them the true faith. And so he released them to his land with great honor. The ambassadors sent Oleg, returned to him and told him all the speeches of both kings, how they concluded peace and established an agreement between the Greek and Russian lands and established not to break the oath - neither to the Greeks nor to Rus'.

Oleg the Prophet and his campaign against Constantinople

Prophetic Oleg, Old Russian prince, his name is mentioned in historical documents, but most of the information about his life and activities has come to us in the form of folk tales, in which real events closely intertwined with the legendary. The story about Oleg the Prophet in the chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years” is legendary. The chronicle contains a lot of materials of tales, stories, legends, oral poetic legends about various historical figures and events.

Rurik died in 879. He bequeathed the princedom to Oleg and left it in the care of his son, Igor. Oleg ruled in Novgorod for three years, and then, having gathered a strong squad and taking Igor with him, he set off to conquer new lands. Oleg was an outstanding commander, and his wisdom and caution were known to everyone, and therefore in the eyes of the people he became a great man.

The Russian land was inhabited by various tribes at that time. In the chronicle it is customary to name more than ten Slavic tribes: Vyatichi, Krivichi, Polyans, Severians, Radimichi and others. The Finno-Ugric tribes coexisted with them: Chud, Ves, Merya, Muroma. Rus' did not have clear boundaries and did not know uniform laws. The Kiev prince ruled only in some points with trade routes. He also collected tribute from subject Slavic and non-Slavic tribes. Payment of tribute and recognition of the supreme power of Kyiv at that time constituted the entire essence of state power.

It was extremely important to sell the collected tribute in neighboring countries - the Caliphate and Byzantium. Rus' received considerable profits from this trade and was vitally interested in its development. The annual influx of thousands of barbarian merchants into the capital created many inconveniences for the Byzantines. Hence came the desire to limit and constrain Russian trade.

For Rus', trade was a state matter, and therefore the response to the actions of the Byzantine authorities was given at the state level.

Oleg and his army moved from north to south by water. He sailed along Lake Ilmen, then along the Lovati River and the Western Dvina, and then, dragging the boats, along the Dnieper. Along the way, Oleg conquered the cities of Smolensk and Lyubech, leaving his governors there.

Finally, Oleg arrived in the rich and fertile lands of the glades and saw the large, beautiful city of Kyiv. Two princes reigned in Kyiv - Askold and Dir.
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Both of them came from Novgorod and once, like Oleg, served Prince Rurik. Oleg decided to capture Kyiv, but, seeing that the city was well fortified, he used cunning rather than force.

He left most of his army behind, and he himself with a small squad, on one boat, approached the very walls of Kyiv and sent a messenger to Askold and Dir: “We are Varangian merchants, we carry a lot good goods. Let them come Kyiv princes look - maybe they’ll buy something.”

Askold and Dir believed that a peaceful merchant caravan had arrived in Kyiv, and went ashore without any security.

Oleg ordered the soldiers who were with him to lie down at the bottom of the boat for the time being. When the Kyiv princes came close, he rose to meet them and said: “You are not princely family, and I am a prince, and with me is Igor, the son of Rurik. I, and not you, should reign here!” He gave a sign to his soldiers - and they instantly hacked Askold and Dir to death with their swords.

Oleg entered the city victoriously. The location of Kyiv seemed very convenient to Oleg, and he moved there with his squad, declaring: “Let Kyiv be the mother of Russian cities!” Having established himself on the Kiev throne, he continued the work of conquering neighboring lands and conquering the tribes inhabiting them. Oleg subjugated the Drevlyans, northerners, and Radimichi and imposed tribute on them. A huge territory came under his rule, on which he founded many cities. This is how the great Principality of Kiev - Kievan Rus - was formed.

When Igor became an adult, Oleg chose his wife - Olga (according to some sources, she was the daughter of Oleg himself), but did not cede the principality.

Prince Oleg made his famous campaign against Constantinople in 907. There is no doubt that this enormous military undertaking required a great deal of preparation. According to the chronicler, the Russian army set sail on two thousand ships.

ʼʼPer year 6415 (907). Oleg went against the Greeks, leaving Igor in Kyiv; He took with him many Varangians, and Slovens, and Chuds, and Krivichi, and Meryu, and Drevlyans, and Radimichi, and Polans, and Northerners, and Vyatichi, and Croats, and Dulebs, and Tiverts... And with all of these Oleg went on horses and in ships; and there were 2000 ships.ʼʼ

Having equipped two thousand ships and gathered a huge cavalry army, Oleg set out on a campaign. The ships sailed along the Dnieper, heading towards the Black Sea, and the horse army walked along the shore in full view of the fleet. Having reached the sea, the cavalry also boarded the ships, and Oleg’s army rushed to Constantinople.

“And Oleg came to Constantinople (Constantinople).” The capital of Byzantium appeared - its white fortress walls, golden domes of churches.

Byzantine Emperor Leo the Wise, seeing ships with countless troops, ordered the harbor to be hastily locked. Strong iron chains were stretched across the bay, blocking the path of Oleg’s ships.

Oleg had to turn aside and land on the shore away from the city. Oleg's warriors ravaged the suburbs of Constantinople, burned houses and churches, killed civilians and threw them into the sea. A battle took place under the walls of the Byzantine capital. The chronicler reports about it this way: Prince Oleg “having fought near the city and committed a lot of murder to the Greeks.” But Oleg could not take Constantinople itself - the chains reliably protected the city from invasion from the sea. The siege of the city threatened to drag on, and powerful autumn storms began at sea. Prince Oleg decided to scare the “Greeks”. Then he ordered his soldiers to make wheels, put the ships pulled ashore on them and raise the sails.

A fair wind blew and the ships rushed towards the city overland, as if across the sea. “The Greeks, seeing this, were frightened and said through the ambassadors to Oleg: “Do not destroy the city, we will give you whatever tribute you want.”

Having ended the war with a favorable peace, Oleg returned to Kyiv with glory. This campaign created for him enormous popularity in the eyes of not only the inhabitants of Rus', but also the Slavs, who nicknamed their prince the Prophetic.

The Byzantines admitted that they were defeated and agreed to pay Oleg whatever tribute he wished. Oleg demanded 12 hryvnia for each pair of oars on his two thousand ships, as well as tribute for Russian cities - Kyiv, Chernigov, Polotsk, Rostov and others.

The Byzantines also agreed to provide a number of benefits to Russian merchants: the right to duty-free trade during a six-month stay in Constantinople, free food and washing in Greek baths. At the same time, the city authorities pledged to provide merchants from Rus' with food and various ship equipment for the return trip.

The chronicler reports that after concluding a “shameful” peace treaty for the Eastern Roman Empire, the Rus hung their shields at the gates, indicating victory, and marched to Constantinople. The fact that Prince Oleg nailed his shield on the gates of Constantinople was direct evidence of the successful campaign of 907.

An agreement on peace and unchanging friendship was concluded between Russia and Byzantium. The Byzantine Christians swore to observe this agreement by the holy cross, and Oleg and his warriors swore by the Slavic gods Perun and Veles.

Oleg returned to Kyiv with honor and great glory.

In 911, Oleg sent an embassy to Constantinople, which confirmed the “long-term” peace and concluded a new treaty.
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Compared to the 907 treaty, the mention of duty-free trade disappears from it. Oleg is referred to in the treaty as the “Grand Duke of Russia”.

Oleg reigned for many years. One day he called the soothsayers to him and asked: “What am I destined to die from?” And the wise men answered: “You, prince, will accept death from your beloved horse.” Oleg was saddened and said: “If this is the case, then I will never sit on it again.” He ordered the horse to be taken away, fed and taken care of, and took another for himself.

A lot of time has passed. One day Oleg remembered his old horse and asked where he was now and if he was healthy. They answered the prince: “Three years have passed since your horse died.”

Then Oleg exclaimed: “The Magi lied: the horse from which they promised me death died, but I am alive!” He wanted to see the bones of his horse and rode into an open field, where they lay in the grass, washed by the rains and bleached by the sun.

The prince touched the horse’s skull with his foot and said, grinning: “Is it from this skull that I should die?” But then it crawled out of the horse’s skull poisonous snake- and stung Oleg in the leg. And Oleg died from snake venom.

Oleg the Prophet and his campaign against Constantinople - concept and types. Classification and features of the category “Oleg the Prophet and his campaign against Constantinople” 2017, 2018.