Everyday life of St. Petersburg residents. Everyday culture of Russia in the 18th century. Material culture of the Russian peasantry

Description of the presentation by individual slides:

1 slide

Slide description:

2 slide

Slide description:

1. Who lived in St. Petersburg? At the end of the 18th century. The first generation of native St. Petersburg residents appeared. Their grandparents were born into the families of the first St. Petersburg residents - the creators of the city. These were courtiers and commoners, rich and poor, Russians and foreigners. Look at the table and answer the questions: Why did the population grow so quickly? At the expense of whom did it grow? years 1750 1782 1800 Number of inhabitants 95,000 170,000 220,000

3 slide

Slide description:

Working with the textbook p. 173 Read the text and tell us about the composition of the population. Working with illustrations. What do they reveal about the composition of the population? Armenian Church English Church in St. Petersburg Catholic Church of St. Catherine Cathedral of the Life-Giving Trinity, St. Petersburg.

4 slide

Slide description:

5 slide

Slide description:

3. Who ruled the city? Remember who ruled the city in the middle. 18th century: City Chief of Police Private bailiffs Police Empresses were more interested in the entertainment and life of the courtiers than in the life of the city.

6 slide

Slide description:

The true mistress of St. Petersburg was Empress Catherine II. Every morning the chief of police came to Catherine II and reported on the events that had happened in the capital. It was he who was responsible for order and tranquility in St. Petersburg.

7 slide

Slide description:

The number of private bailiffs increased to 10, since the city was already divided into 10 parts. P. A. Fedotov: “The front of a private bailiff on the eve of a big holiday”

8 slide

Slide description:

Slide 9

Slide description:

Independent work: Draw up a city management plan using the text on page 175 Empress Pay attention to the formation of governing bodies Chief Police Chief Private bailiffs Police City self-government City mayor

10 slide

Slide description:

Along with the police department, the city also had self-government. According to the “Charter to the Cities”, the City Duma was established in St. Petersburg. Duma deputies were elected by the townspeople themselves. However, only 6% of St. Petersburg residents took part in the elections.

11 slide

Slide description:

At the head of the City Duma was the mayor. But he was actually subordinate to the Chief of Police, who could overturn any decision of the Duma.

12 slide

Slide description:

The city government was in charge of the city economy, city improvement, school and medical affairs, charity, city trade and taxes.

Slide 13

Slide description:

What problems did St. Petersburg residents have and how were they solved? Independent work. material §24. They managed government money, maintained teams, food markets, hospitals, and postal services. They monitored the work of shops and private transportation. Housing problems, fires being put out, streets clean, peace at night. Who solved the Problems A) Authorities B) Citizens

Slide 14

Slide description:

How did different St. Petersburg residents live? Read the texts and identify the groups of St. Petersburg residents who lived in St. Petersburg at the end of the 18th century. Fill out the table: Population stratum Income Occupations Educated St. Petersburg residents who earn their living by their labor. Business people: merchants, owners of craft workshops. Working people Modest Rich Poor and beggars

15 slide

Slide description:

16 slide

Slide description:

Holy Blessed Xenia was buried in the Smolensk cemetery south of the church in the name of the Smolensk Icon Mother of God. In 1902, at the grave of St. Blessed Xenia, according to the design of the architect Slavin, a stone chapel was erected, the eastern wall of which was decorated in 1992 with a mosaic icon of the holy ascetic. In 1987, the chapel was consecrated by the current His Holiness Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus' Alexy II.

Slide 17

Slide description:

5. How did St. Petersburg residents celebrate holidays, how did they have fun? Having spent the entire autumn, winter and spring in Moscow, on June 28, 1763, the Empress returned to the capital. Artistic concept fireworks in honor of the arrival and anniversary of the accession to the throne of Catherine II belonged to Yakov Shtelin. On the bank of the river, near the Summer Garden, a temporary wooden gallery was specially built, from which the Empress was supposed to watch the festive spectacle.

18 slide

Slide description:

Slide 19

Slide description:

20 slide

Slide description:

In the 18th century, Epiphany bathing in St. Petersburg was very popular. “People were absolutely sure that swimming in Jordan would cure them of all illnesses and bring them happiness in the year. Even small children were plunged into severe frosts in Jordan. Moreover, mothers themselves did not bathe their newborn children - this had to be done by a representative of the church. On the eve of Epiphany, two Jordans were held in St. Petersburg - on the embankment near the Winter Palace and near the Peter and Paul Fortress. A large wooden pavilion was built around the Jordan near the Winter Palace. It was decorated with gilding and large icons depicting Christ, the apostles and John the Baptist. An image of the Holy Spirit was placed above the Jordan itself.

EVERYDAY CULTURE OF ST. PETERSBURG (XVIII century)

horizontally

2. The country whose fashion influenced noble attire in Russia.

8. Architect of the City Duma building on Nevsky Prospekt, 33/1.

9. Architect of the Armenian Church and the Catholic Cathedral of St. Catherine.

11. An institution created for the poor or people unable to feed themselves.

14. A guard guarding the night peace of St. Petersburg residents.

15. Architect of the Main Post Office building and the “Kulich and Easter” church.

16. Owner of a club for business people.

17. A type of punishment for citizens for failure to fulfill duties, fraud, theft, public scandals, fights.

18. The meadow where the private theater was located.

19. Patroness of St. Petersburg, who became a symbol of fidelity and kindness.

vertically

1. Owner of the first English club for merchants in Russia.

3. An enterprise where a “newcomer” could get a job.

4. The Empress, the first in Russia to vaccinate herself against smallpox.

5. An institution whose opening was allowed by Catherine II after the fire in Gostiny Dvor.

6. Owner of the first “dance hall” in St. Petersburg for ordinary citizens.

7. The rank responsible for order and tranquility in St. Petersburg.

10. Scope of activity of city government.

12. The merchant, with whose money the Church of the Assumption of the Mother of God on Sennaya Square was mortgaged.

13. The name of the first free hospital in Russia for ordinary St. Petersburg residents.

On the topic: methodological developments, presentations and notes

MHC lesson notes. Western European culture of the 17th-18th centuries

The material contains developments for lessons on the topic "Western European culture of the 17th-18th centuries" - new trends in culture, the concept of classicism, the main aesthetic trends of Classicism in architecture (Versailles...

This presentation reveals the following questions: - How did the nobles live? - What features of noble upbringing, education and behavior were worthy of imitation? - Which areas of the capital city were not...

IN mid-18th century V. in St. Petersburg there were about 74.3 thousand people, and together with children - 95 thousand. The categories of “philistines” (owners of real estate - nobles, officials, clergy) and “tenants” (who did not have real estate) covered permanent residents of St. Petersburg; “newcomers” are probably workers at industrial enterprises (seasonal workers were not taken into account). Among the population. 61% were men, 39% were women, which indicated an influx of mainly male workers into St. Petersburg. In 1764 the population was 150 thousand people, in 1784-192 thousand, by the beginning of the 19th century. - 220 thousand people. The growth rate of the capital's population exceeded its growth throughout the country by more than 3 times. In the 90s XVIII century the population employed in production amounted to 114 thousand people, the rest lived “on salaries” (government officials or employees of private enterprises, etc.). In the second half of the 18th century. 3 Admiralty units (41% of the total population), Liteinaya (10%), Moskovskaya (13.6%), Vasileostrovskaya (11%), St. Petersburg (7.4%) were densely populated; the rest (Karetnaya-Yamskaya, Vyborgskaya) were sparsely populated. In the central regions, noblemen, rich merchants, and major officials settled in palaces and mansions; Small artisans and traders also lived here. On the Petersburg side, petty officials and retirees lived in small houses. On the outskirts of St. Petersburg, factory workers (about 5 thousand people) huddled in shacks.

During the reign of Catherine II, who paid special attention to education and public education, in St. Petersburg appeared, in addition to the Noble Cadet Corps she transformed, the Mining School, the Institute of Noble Maidens, the Gymnasium, primary schools for the lower classes of society. The Empress created the first such school at her own expense in the Admiralty part of the city. She ordered the same schools to be created throughout the city. During these years, special almshouses appeared for the elderly and hopelessly ill, and money began to be allocated for the maintenance of prisoners. A Medical College was established, without whose permission no one could practice medicine. More than 2,000 thousand lanterns appeared in the city, illuminating the streets in the dark. Lamplighter L.N. Semenova was assigned to every 20 lanterns. Life and population of St. Petersburg (XVIII century). - St. Petersburg: “BLITZ”, 2005. - P. 182.

The police service was completely transformed and had to be adapted to the needs of a greatly expanded city and a significantly increased population. Fires continued to be a problem for the city. One of the measures to quickly extinguish fires was the appointment of an incentive award to the fire brigade that was the first to arrive at the scene of the fire. Floods, which have long been familiar to residents of St. Petersburg, were no less of a disaster. One of the strongest occurred on the night of September 10, 1777, when the water rose more than 3 meters, bringing with it unprecedented destruction; it was the most significant before the flood of 1824.

By the end of the 18th century, the city's population exceeded 200 thousand people; there were more than 60 Orthodox and 15 heterodox churches in the city. There were (1780) more than 1,200 streets and alleys, 3.3 thousand houses, the entire central part of the city would be completely paved with cobblestones and covered with transverse boards.

In the first half of the 19th century. the population increased almost 2.5 times. As before, it was replenished mainly due to the newcomer population. The city continued to attract male labor. The proportion of the female population is 1800-30%, 1825-28.5%, 1843-32.4%, 1853-31.9%. IN national composition Russians predominated (85%). Finns, Latvians, Poles, and representatives of other Russian nationalities also lived in St. Petersburg; in addition, foreigners - especially many Germans (in 1818-35 thousand, in the late 1840s - 39 thousand) and French (4 thousand and over 2.7 thousand, respectively), who were engaged in crafts, trade, were hired as childcare workers.

In St. Petersburg early XIX century, traffic in the city center was very busy. One of the travelers who visited the city at that time wrote down in his impressions that “cab carriages in St. Petersburg are much more numerous than in the largest cities of Europe, the streets are lined with them.” There were more than three hundred special parking lots in the city - exchanges, as they were called then, for cab drivers.

According to the surviving statistics, in St. Petersburg in 1815 there were 8,102 government horses, 7,519 common and 2,476 carriage horses. Horsemen galloped through the streets, carriages decorated with coats of arms, dandy carriages and droshky, English carts with umbrellas, dormezes, convertibles, phaetons, rulers, tarantays rushed by. Immediately next to them, loaded carts and trucks rolled along. In winter, sleighs, sleds and sleds creaked everywhere. There were no pedestrian paths, and therefore, when crossing the street, you had to be very careful - you might end up under the wheels of some reckless driver. The cab drivers were, as a rule, serfs who came to the city to earn money for rent. Cab drivers were required to have literacy skills so that they could read the street name and house number. But this requirement was met with difficulty - there were few literate peasants. Travel by cab was expensive - 80 kopecks. The daily salary of a minor official was approximately the same. Therefore, the townspeople preferred to walk.

Since the summer of 1830, “city carriages, known in Paris as omnibuses, appeared in St. Petersburg to transport the poor, that is, large part of our public,” with the help of which it was possible “to visit out-of-town places for a small fee.” An omnibus office opened on Nevsky Prospekt behind the Anichkov Bridge in the house of the merchant Minyaev. Omnibuses ran along three routes: from the Kazansky Bridge to Krestovsky Island, from the Kazansky Bridge to Staraya Derevnya, and from Duma to the end of Novaya Derevnya. Omnibuses were large carriages drawn by four horses. The carriage accommodated 6 people in seats, and the same number could fit on the imperial.

Wealthy people, having their own travel, did not use omnibuses or cabs. The beauty of the horses, carriage and harness was a subject of special care, and often the horses, carriage, coachman, and postilion were worth a lot of money. We drove very fast in St. Petersburg, which was noticed by Gogol. The distances were large, the streets were paved with cobblestones, so the carriage “required great strength or constant supervision of its condition” Nekrylova A. F. Russian folk city holidays, entertainment and spectacles. The end of the 18th - the beginning of the 20th century. - St. Petersburg: ABC-classics, 2004. - P.107. Carriage makers knew their trade and earned fortunes.

No less than crews on the streets, there were a variety of boats on the rivers and canals in St. Petersburg. There were not enough bridges in the city; floating bridges were removed in stormy weather, and then communication between the banks ceased. There were more than 30 transport docks in the city. A tax was charged for transportation. Military personnel, officials (“civil servants,” we would say) and Okhta carpenters were exempt from pay. In addition to the carrier boats, the pleasure boats of wealthy townspeople, sometimes gilded, sometimes upholstered in velvet, sometimes covered with silk tents, glided smoothly along the Neva to the singing of oarsmen or horn music. The rowers had special clothes. For example, the rowers - “gondoliers” - of Prince Yusupov were dressed in cherry-colored jackets and hats with feathers. Boating with singing rowers was one of the favorite pastimes of St. Petersburg residents.

For residents of the capital it is very important events there was a freezing and opening of the Neva, which to some extent changed the life of the capital. During the freezing of the Neva in the fall, as well as during the opening of the river in the spring, for some time - sometimes for several days, and sometimes for several weeks - communication between the left bank - the Admiralty side and the right - Vasilyevsky Island, the St. Petersburg and Vyborg side "to the extreme public annoyance." There have always been a lot of rumors and disputes about the timing of freezing or opening of the Neva, reaching the point of “mortgages” - bets. But when the Neva “rose”, people crossed it on the ice on sleds or on foot.

In 1815, a steamboat appeared in St. Petersburg. This was the name of American steamship ships. But an article in the magazine “Son of the Fatherland” entitled “Steamboat on the Neva” talked about the tests of the first Russian steam ship. The Russian steamboat was an “ordinary Tikhvin boat,” that is, a 60-foot-long barge with a steam engine installed in the hold.

In the same 1815, C. Bird opened the first shipping company in St. Petersburg. The first Russian steamship was called "Elizabeth". Berd's steamships plied between St. Petersburg and Kronstadt twice a day. In Kronstadt, residents of the capital who wanted to make a long sea voyage could transfer from the “Berdovaya machine” to ships going to different ports of Russia and Europe.

In 1820, the first joint-stock company in Russia was established to organize passenger flights between St. Petersburg and Moscow. Stagecoaches were large, comfortable, multi-seat carriages drawn by four horses. Stagecoaches immediately became popular. Many people began to prefer traveling in a stagecoach to traveling in their own carriage, as due to bad roads the carriages shook violently, they often broke down and also required changing horses at post stations. When the highway between the two capitals was completed in 1833, this type of transport became a common way to travel from one city to another. Soon stagecoaches from St. Petersburg were heading to Revel, Riga, and Tsarskoe Selo.

This same period is also a time of rapid development of the social and cultural life of St. Petersburg. The first decades of the 19th century were the heyday of Russian literature. With St. Petersburg in the first half XIX century The life of Pushkin and many other Russian writers is connected. V. A. Zhukovsky, N. M. Karamzin, I. A. Krylov, K. N. Batyushkov, A. S. Griboyedov lived and worked at this time in St. Petersburg. Big role in literary life cities of that time played the Olenin circle, literary society“Arzamas”, magazines “Sovremennik”, “St. Petersburg Mercury”, “Son of the Fatherland”, newspaper “Northern Bee”.

Famous Russian artists, sculptors and architects studied and taught at the Academy of Arts, which became the center of the city's arts. The names of K. P. Bryullov, S. F. Shchedrin, O. A. Kiprensky, A. G. Venetsianov, V. A. Tropinin are closely connected with St. Petersburg of that time.

There was a singing choir in the city, headed by composer D. S. Bortnyansky. At this time, M.I. Glinka lived and worked in St. Petersburg. Was open Opera House, in which Glinka’s opera “A Life for the Tsar” was staged for the first time. Concerts were constantly given at the Philharmonic Society, founded in 1802 and located in Engelhardt’s house on Nevsky Prospekt.

The Hermitage and Rumyantsev Museum. In St. Petersburg, for the first time in Russia, a library was opened for the general public in 1814. In 1830-1840, the library already had about half a million books. I. A. Krylov, A. N. Olenin, K. N. Batyushkov, A. A. Delvig, N. I. Gnedich worked in the library. After the adoption of the charter on the opening of gymnasiums in St. Petersburg in 1828, 4 gymnasiums were opened, teaching in which was designed to prepare students for entering universities. Several new higher educational institutions were opened, mainly technical ones, several military educational institutions and, finally, the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum. Primary schools and parish schools at churches were opened for children “from the lower classes”. In the first half of the 19th century, the first scientific societies. During these same years, the Pulkovo Observatory, the observatory at the Mining Institute, and the Russian Geographical Society were opened.

everyday culture, home, life, costume, canons of family life

Annotation:

The article analyzes the main features of the 18th century. as eras in Russian culture; “a new type of personality of a nobleman”; features of a noble costume; noble house styles; the main European leisure forms, borrowed and widely used by the Russian nobility; characteristic features everyday life Russian peasantry; Russian national costume; canons of family and public life Russian peasantry.

Article text:

General characteristics era. Early XVIII century was marked by the reforms of Peter I, which were designed to bridge the gap in the level of development of Russia and Europe. The reforms affected almost all spheres of society. Their content was a decisive shift from the Middle Ages to modern times and the Europeanization of all areas of life. The old ones were being broken down government agencies, replacing them with new ones, a modern administrative and bureaucratic apparatus was taking shape. An important place in the transformations of Peter I was occupied by church reform, as a result of which the previously relatively independent church came under the power of the state. As a result of all the transformations in the political system of the Russian state, the formation of an absolute monarchy was completed. The absolutist state needed secular culture.

An important feature of modern culture has been its openness and ability to communicate with the cultures of other peoples, which was the result of a policy aimed at undermining national and religious isolation. Relations with Western countries are expanding. Contacts with Europe contributed to the penetration of humanistic and rationalistic teachings into Russia. The ideology of absolutism began to be supported by the ideas of rationalism, European Enlightenment.

The modern era is characterized by such processes as accelerating the pace of development and increasing complexity of social development as a whole. The process of differentiation begins, the emergence of new branches of culture: science, theater, portrait painting, poetry, journalism.

An important beginning in the process of separating secular from church culture was the replacement of the old Church Slavonic font with a new, civil one. The periodical press was a powerful means of educating the people. The first printed newspaper in Russia was Vedomosti, published in 1703. The growth of printing contributed to the development of the book trade. In 1714, the first library was opened, which became the basis of the library of the Academy of Sciences. It was available for free visiting. In 1719, the first Russian museum, the Kunstkamera, opened. The logical result of reforms in the field of education and science was the opening of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg in 1725. New rituals were introduced in social and cultural life and everyday life. They were aimed at instilling a Western European way of life. Instead of the old chronology - “from the Creation of the world” - from January 1, 1700, the chronology “from the Nativity of Christ” was introduced. A custom arose to celebrate the New Year: to arrange fireworks and decorate Christmas trees. New form communication became assemblies.

The most decisive turn towards the Europeanization of Russian culture occurred during the reign of Catherine II. Her reign marked the beginning of the era of enlightened absolutism. Catherine decided to pay special attention to the education of “new people”, morally perfect, who would raise their children in the same spirit, which would lead to changes in society. It was assumed that the new person would be raised in an exclusively Western spirit. Much attention was paid liberal arts education. Orphanages appeared in Moscow and St. Petersburg, closed institutes, and cadet corps.

In the 18th century, the prerequisites were created for the formation of the Russian national language, the literary language became closer to the spoken language, and the process of formation of new dialects ceased. The Russian colloquial language is being formed . The Moscow dialect serves as a model. In the 90s, N. Karamzin carried out a reform of the literary language. This made it possible to attract a wide range of people to reading.

Cultural ties with other countries are expanding. A more active lifestyle and the popularity of travel led to the development of the epistolary genre. Intensified social thought countries.

Daily life of nobles

In the 18th century great changes have occurred not only in government affairs and artistic culture, but also the everyday life of Russian people, especially the privileged class - the nobility.

The formation of a new type of personality of a nobleman and noblewoman, which began earlier, continued, which was the result of borrowing European educational systems. During the time of Peter I, the creation of a secular school and noble education was an exclusively state matter. During the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna and Catherine II, state policy in the field of education was forced to take into account private noble interests and initiatives in this area. Enlightenment transformations contributed to one degree or another to the transfer of European educational systems for the younger generation of the first estate to Russian soil, and this process took place within the framework of accelerated transformation. A large number of enthusiasts appeared in Russia - foreigners who discovered educational institutions and filling the noble estates. Private education began to be considered as an official phenomenon of state policy in the field of education. To create closed state educational institutions for noble children, as well as private education, Western European experience was studied and replicated.

Home teaching of children of the Russian nobility for a long time was the only opportunity to obtain an education. For the career of a nobleman, the determining factors were, first of all, faith and devotion to the throne, and then knowledge. In the 18th century, in “normative” upbringing and education, the guideline was foreign languages and good European manners. Rich nobles were very sensitive to the education of their children and tried to give them as much knowledge as possible without tiring them or harming their health. The fulfillment of important educational tasks among the nobility was hampered by the lack of professional teachers. As a rule, these were either serfs or foreigners - Germans and French.

Subsequently, childhood began to be considered as a special stage in a person’s life, and it began to be provided by a special material world - clothes, toys, children's literature, classrooms and playrooms in the house. Caring for the health of children began with the choice of nurses and was an important responsibility of mothers, nannies and governesses. Great value devoted to the moral and spiritual education of the child. However, the government tried to unify and bring home education into a single system.

Clothes and things in the everyday life of nobles

The nobles always dressed in strict accordance with fashion, saying modern language, stylish. At the same time, the noble costume always corresponded to the situation and was proportionate and harmonious with the emotions and worldview of the person. In the Baroque and Rococo eras, pastel and delicate tones of men's and women's silk outfits were harmonious both against the backdrop of garden greenery and fountains, and in the mirrored enfilades of palaces. Diamonds and sequins scattered across clothes complemented the lights of candles and fireworks. The huge skirts of women's dresses required space - wide suites of palaces and park alleys.

The 18th century was marked by a revolution in the dress of the nobility. The study of Peter's legislation made it possible to draw conclusions, on the one hand, about the breadth of the reforms that had begun, and on the other, about the caution and correctness in carrying out the “costume” reform. The national adjustment of European clothing standards was expressed in the use of predominantly cloth, furs, and a bright palette of costumes. During the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, fashionable French standards were finally established. Catherine II tried to introduce English trends along with French fashions, and correlated both with national traditions. The Russian nobility, in their European costume, showed old Russian grandfatherly traditions - a passion for jewelry, furs, red heels and rich accessories that performed a communicative function and were an important component symbolism of the costume. Baroque costumes created a festive atmosphere in everyday life.

The 18th century passed in a tense struggle between the Russian chambers and the European house - the palace. The Peter the Great era was marked by the penetration of the Baroque style and regularity into the construction of the houses of nobles, who gradually began to build palace houses. The urban and rural estates of the nobles had a number of common features: the location of the residential building deep in the courtyard, the estate nature of the development, the commitment to wood, the enclosure of the property and a regular park. European interiors of noble houses were decorated in red and lingonberry tones and with green tiled stoves according to the old Russian tradition. In Catherine's time, palace houses were built for aristocrats and mansions for the middle-class nobility. The “hallmark” of the noble mansion was the portico with columns and the cladding of wooden parts “like stone”. Landscape parks became one of the prerequisites for the development of the scientific interest of the nobility in natural branches of knowledge. The estate created an image of the landowner’s world, a symbol of this family; it became one of the forms of expression of the nobleman’s self-awareness.

Culinary traditions

In the era of Peter the Great, the influence of German and Dutch cuisines was observed. Under Elizabeth Petrovna and Catherine II, a long period of French cuisine began for the nobility. The rapid spread of French cuisine in Russia was facilitated not so much by foreign chefs, but by the variety of dish options in French cuisine, which corresponded to the national traditions of the Russians. Luxury in this era was understood in following nature in the combination of dishes and methods of preparing them. The culture of the aristocracy's feast included French, English and German trends in dining, which were actively synthesized in the practice of gastronomy. In general, “Russian exoticism” was a defining trend in the gastronomic tastes of the nobility. European influence only contributed to their enrichment and intensive development in subsequent decades. In the development of table culture, the Russian custom of table setting prevailed not only in Moscow, but it was recognized by the middle of the 19th century and in Western Europe. The nobles for the most part were gourmets and kept an “open table”. They turned their dinners into theatrical performances, the roles of which were described by noble etiquette.

Leisure development

It begins with the nobility true story leisure Owning private property, representatives of this class, the “leisure class,” could afford leisure worthy of their condition, and with a demonstration of their high position in the social hierarchy and “demonstrative behavior.” For a nobleman, almost all the time free from official affairs turned into leisure. Having such unlimited leisure, the first estate had the most favorable conditions for the transformation and revision of not only all its previous forms, but also a radical change in the relationship between public and private life in favor of the latter. Since the 18th century, leisure has acquired a status that it had never had before. This process went in parallel with the establishment of the secular nature of the entire culture and the gradual displacement (but not destruction) of religious values by worldly ones. Leisure acquired increasing obvious value for the nobleman as secular culture established itself. The main forms of this leisure time were initially borrowed in the 18th century, and then in the 19th century they were translated into the language of their own national culture. The borrowing of Western European forms of leisure initially occurred under the pressure of government decrees and in opposition to national traditions.

The perception of European leisure forms began precisely with spectacles, fireworks, and external manners. The nobleman was a conductor of this culture and an actor, a performer of this theater. He played out his leisure time, be it a holiday, a ball, an appearance in the theater or a card match, as an actor on stage, in full view of the whole society. It is no coincidence that in the 18th century there was enormous interest in theater, performing arts dominated everyone else, included them and even subjugated them. But the main thing was the theatricalization of the nobleman’s entire life. It manifested itself in privacy for show, in the publicity of leisure, in which costume, manners, behavior, important skills and abilities were deliberately demonstrated.

The Peter the Great era was marked by new traditions of spectacles. The most important innovation was fireworks, which had a socio-political character. Masquerades were held either in the form of costumed processions or in the form of a display of carnival costumes in a public place. Theatrical performances glorified the tsar and his victories, so they became part of official life and made it possible to introduce translated plays and Western European performing arts to a select audience. Under Elizaveta Petrovna, fireworks were extended to the palaces of nobles, masquerades were turned into a costume ball, in which some timid trends were outlined in its evolution towards an entertainment culture. In the first place in the theatrical tastes of the highest aristocracy there was entertainment and music. opera art. During the reign of Catherine II, state official celebrations with fireworks and masquerades were replaced by private illuminations in noble estates. The flourishing of city and estate theaters during the reign of Catherine II was due to the artistic aesthetics of the Enlightenment and the growing self-awareness of the Russian nobility. With all the variety of genres, comedy remained supreme. Along with public masquerades, private masquerades, organized by a nobleman in his estate, also flourished.

Ballroom and musical culture nobility

Peter's assemblies, which had as their tasks raising the status of women, bringing classes and genders closer together, introduced a select circle of nobles to the basics dance art and new forms of communication. The beginnings of home music-making and song art appeared, which existed mainly in the form of lyrical cant and everyday “book songs.” The “Kingdom of Women” on the Russian throne strengthened the role of women in dance culture, and they gradually became the hostesses of the ball. The flourishing of Italian opera and the growth of dance culture contributed to the development of vocal and song art in the noble houses of the nobility. The reign of Catherine II saw the heyday of private balls and public balls in the Assembly of the Nobility, which became an important part of the self-identification of the nobility. The salon and ceremony was gradually replaced by the naturalness and relaxedness of the dance culture. High society embraced the musical hobby of playing the piano and vocals. Achievements of this period there were serfs, unique horn orchestras, active concert activity, and the spread of song culture. This era was characterized by the introduction of an entertainment element into ballroom culture. The new dances carried a powerful gender element, a liberated atmosphere and a general emancipation of ballroom culture. Among the nobles there appeared real connoisseurs, music experts and even composers. Music became a way of life for the nobleman.

Duels and card games

The period of the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna and Catherine II was marked by an important stage in the development of duels and card games as prohibited leisure activities for noblemen. Important results of the introduction of the empress's decrees were the transfer of the payment of gambling debts to the sphere of honor of the nobleman and the allocation of income from the growing destructive passion to orphanages. The active work of the Moscow English Club contributed to the transformation of card games into a lifestyle and a social ritual.

In the 18th century, the authorities not only pursued a policy of prohibiting duels, but also asserting the physical integrity of the nobility. Cruel laws death penalty were not designed for implementation, but aroused great interest among the nobles, especially those who had visited abroad. A characteristic feature of the new dueling phenomenon was the addiction to fights, which became part of the ritual. This period was characterized by duels - skirmishes with swords with a high level of aggressiveness of the fight. Despite the prohibition of duels and very conditional punishments for them, Elizabeth Petrovna and Catherine II, through their legislation, proclaimed the right of a nobleman to protect his physical integrity and honor. The duel became the ideal remedy conflict resolution and a regulator of relations in the private life of the noble class. Honor became the main class virtue of the nobility and the law of their class behavior.

Code of Household Conduct

In the times of Peter the Great and Elizabeth, important foundations were laid for the transformation of the noble family: the prohibition of forced marriage, the assumption of freedom of marriage choice, the violation of the isolation of the Orthodox family by allowing marriages with non-believers and foreigners, the education of the bride and groom, and raising the age of the young. Some important rituals served to strengthen marriage bonds: “betrothal”, “announcement”, “search”, “crown memorials”, metric books for registering marriages. Despite the preservation of traditional rituals, the wedding gradually turned into a European-style celebration with fashionable outfits, dancing and foreign travel. An innovation of this time was the divorce of noble families. At the heart of the family itself, which retained a largely patriarchal character, were duty and family harmony. During the reign of Catherine II and Alexander I, greater freedom appeared in the choice of marriage partners, due to joint forms of pastime. The era of “private life” taught the nobility to look for a new compromise option in choosing future spouses: a combination of their own sympathies and parental will. The influence of feelings on the marriage of future spouses is confirmed by the increase in secret weddings and bride abductions, as well as the possibility of unequal marriages. social status marriages. A noble wedding included both traditional wedding rituals and newfangled trends in European life. Divorces were still a complex procedure, but were possible among the nobility. The marriage contract became a document that served as legal protection for spouses. An important phenomenon was the acquisition by a noblewoman of the exclusive right to a dowry. The noble family began to be built on new principles. In the family, the role of the woman who became a wife-friend has increased. The husband's power began to be more refined and enlightened. The relationship between husband and wife, according to the codes of the nobility, was based on sympathies of tastes and views.

The penetration of Western European culture into Russia in the times of Peter the Great, Elizabeth and Catherine occurred through introduction to reading books, art, and new forms of communication. For the first time, personal libraries and collections appeared in the houses of the nobility. Under the influence of European culture in the 18th century, aesthetic tastes and new etiquette communication of the Moscow nobility. This process was accompanied by the development of self-awareness of the first estate, which was based on moral Orthodox guidelines. The formation of the worldview, first of Peter the Great’s artilleryman and navigator, and then of the enlightened nobleman of the Elizabethan and Catherine periods, took place through conservation Orthodox tradition in the sphere of everyday behavior against the background of playing Europeans. The ethical standards of Christianity greatly influenced moral principles noble society. This was most clearly manifested in the charitable activities of the nobility, which acquired various shapes Christian poverty - the creation of shelters, hospitals and other charitable institutions.

The duality of the nobleman's worldview remained a characteristic feature throughout the 18th century. His spiritual life was closely connected with the norms of the European Enlightenment, and real everyday life and everyday consciousness were almost entirely built on the basis of traditional religious ideas about daily routine and lifestyle. Under these conditions, what united these two trends in the consciousness of the nobleman were humanistic values and universal virtues. A clear confirmation of this is the growth of targeted charity of the nobility in Catherine’s era. The most significant monuments of this activity were the Golitsyn Hospital and the Sheremetev Hospital.

Woman's position

The penetration of European culture into Russia radically changed the position of noblewomen. First forcibly, and then of her own free will, she joined social life and mastered the relevant skills of noble etiquette: read books, attended to the toilet, learned foreign languages, mastered music, dancing, and the art of conversation. At the same time she had a family with good good traditions priority of values and Christian faith. Children remained the main daily concern of noblewomen of Peter the Great, Elizabethan and Catherine's times. All aristocrats adhered to the Orthodox faith, helped monasteries and churches, and did charity work. To the level of mentality and value orientations The change in the reading circle of the Moscow noblewoman had a great influence. Over time, women's libraries and special publications for women's reading appeared, noblewomen began to read novels, then serious philosophical and historical literature and finally they became book connoisseurs. Gradually, aristocratic women became involved in drawing, writing, album art, and home performances. At the end of the eighteenth - first half of the nineteenth centuries. some of them did translations, composed operas, wrote poems and stories, sang and played music beautifully, and also staged plays. An important proof of the intellectual growth of the Moscow noblewoman was her album creativity and her correspondence. All this contributed to the growth of self-awareness of Moscow noblewomen.

Thus, the everyday culture of the nobility in the 18th century. It went through two main stages in its development.

The first stage chronologically coincides with the reign of Peter I, Anna Ioannovna and Elizaveta Petrovna and constitutes the first half of the 18th century. It was characterized by the collision and mixing in everyday life of two trends - traditional and European. This was a turning point, primarily in the field of changes in external, material factors in the everyday life of the nobility. A change in appearance was a kind of symbolic manifestation of the choice of one or another path of development of the country, an expression of commitment to a certain type of culture, but behind the external attributes there was usually an important internal content.

The second stage in the evolution of the everyday culture of the nobility occurs in the second half of the 18th century and coincides with the reign of Catherine II and Paul I. This period was characterized by the deep penetration of Enlightenment ideas into all spheres of everyday life and spiritual life of the first estate, the flourishing of the private life of the nobility, and the creation of a certain type of lifestyle nobles. At this stage of the evolution of Russian everyday culture, European norms were quickly adopted. This time gave rise to a new special type of nobleman - an enlightened nobleman, many of whose representatives became leaders and conductors of European culture in Russia.

Material culture of the Russian peasantry

In the past Russian population It was almost entirely peasant. This left a deep imprint on the everyday forms characteristic of the multimillion-dollar the masses. According to ancient tradition, the entire routine of peasant life was determined by agricultural work, which lasted from April to October. There were stable methods of cultivating the soil and growing crops, passing from generation to generation, and a specific set of agricultural tools and fishing equipment. The design of the main tool, the plow, was different in different parts of the country, which was explained by the dissimilarity of natural and soil conditions, as well as enduring traditions. From time immemorial, the Russian peasant grew, first of all, grains - rye, wheat, barley, oats, millet, buckwheat, as well as industrial and fodder crops - flax, hemp, peas, vetch, clover. Among the ancient alien crops, cabbage, lentils, and watermelon were cultivated, and from later ones (XVII - XIX centuries) - corn, potatoes, sunflowers, sugar beets, tomatoes, and tobacco. Livestock farming was represented by cattle, mainly local red and motley breeds, as well as horses (1-2 per average yard), sheep, pigs and poultry. In some places, especially in the North and Siberia, fishing and commercial hunting were of no small importance.

In the way Russian villages and villages are located, in their size and layout, you can see a lot traditional features. When founding villages, Russian peasants skillfully took into account local natural conditions- microrelief, reservoirs, forests, direction of prevailing winds. Most Russian villages are beautifully integrated into the landscape that surrounds them, and their layout is varied: in some the houses stand in one line along the road, along the river, along the shore of the lake, in others they form a circle, oval, rectangle in plan around a village square or church, in others - scattered in related “nests”, in the fourth - finally, they make up streets.

In the northern and central regions of Russia, residential buildings faced the street with a narrow end side, in the southern Russian regions - with a long facade, and in Cossack villages and in farmsteads they were placed more freely, somewhat retreating from the street, in the depths of the yard, and the entire estate was enclosed by a high fence.

Along with all-Russian features, the house-building of various regions had its own characteristics, which were manifested in the layout of the estate and in the arrangement of the internal premises of residential and service buildings and in the materials used for their construction. The North Russian house - north of the Upper Volga - is a tall log building, consisting of the hut itself, a vestibule and a cage, or a living half with a two-story courtyard directly attached to it. The spread of the covered courtyard in the northern and central non-black soil regions of Russia was due to harsh and snowy winters, which forced residential and outbuildings to be combined into one whole. Window trims, cornices, porch boards, and balcony grilles in a North Russian house were decorated with geometric carvings, various figured slots, and often painted.

The South Russian house - south of the Kaluga - Ryazan - Penza line - was built small, low and represented a log hut, often coated with clay on the outside, with a canopy, or an adobe and brick hut with a wooden, and more often adobe or earthen floor. The roof was always made of a hipped roof with a thatched covering. The external architectural decoration here was poorer than in the north. The courtyard buildings were located behind the house and, adjacent to each other, formed a closed square with an open central area.

Foreigners visiting Russia also paid attention to the richness of original forms Russian folk costume. Main features of Russian traditional clothes, especially male ones, were common throughout the country. And yet, region from region, north from south, west from east differed in many elements of the costume. Men's clothing everywhere consisted of a shirt-shirt, narrow trousers and a caftan. In women's clothing, two types stood out most clearly: North Russian and South Russian. Women's Russian costume was generally colorful, but it was especially beautiful in the southern Russian regions. There, peasant women decorated their dresses with embroidery and woven patterns, skillfully combining them with red inserts, with sewn strips of cord, ribbons, braid and sequins. Common to all areas was a women's shirt with pads (shoulder inserts) and a gathered collar. Sleeves, shoulders, and shirt collars were trimmed with embroidery or a woven pattern. Northern peasant women wore a sundress over a long canvas shirt, which was tied with a woven belt. Festive sundresses were made from beautiful patterned fabrics. Girls stood out by wearing freely flowing braids with ribbons, elegant head crowns over braids, and light scarves. The headdress of married women was more complex, necessarily covering the hair laid under it - these are festive warriors, kokoshniks, bangs, etc. On holidays they wore necklaces made of amber and local pearls mined in northern rivers. In a southern Russian village, married women wore a paneva, a kind of skirt made of checkered woolen (most often blue) fabric, over a shirt with slanted skirts, intercepted by a belt. On top of the shirt they also wore a bib - short clothes with and without sleeves made of homespun fabric, and on top of the paneva shirt - an embroidered apron (zapon). The headdress here was a kichka, which was made of a solid base - the kichka itself, on which they put a woven crest - a “magpie”; A cloth collar with a long brimstone bottom was tied to the back of the kitty.

The same stamp of originality as housing and clothing was carried by kitchen. Russian people have always been famous for their hospitality and strived to make festive table abundant. In a wealthy home, traditional treats included jellied fish, jellied meat, a variety of pies, cold meat and poultry, meat soup or borscht and chicken noodles, fried and stewed meat, goose or duck with apples, suckling pig with buckwheat porridge, scrambled eggs, milk porridge, jelly and compotes, pastilles and jams, vodka, wine, liqueurs, tinctures, beer, kvass. Of course, this composition of traditional cuisine changed depending on the local food supply and the property status of the family. We should never forget that the vast majority of the population ate very modestly, and it is not for nothing that the Russian people have an apt saying: “Shchi and porridge are our food.”

Public and family life The bulk of the Russian peasantry lived within the boundaries of their village and narrow rural district with their long-established local customs, beliefs and ideas. The worldview and morality of the Russian peasantry had a significant impact christian church. The majority adhered to the rituals of official Orthodoxy, but in the North, in the Volga region and in Siberia there were also many Old Believers. However, professing Christian and pre-Christian original beliefs, many peasants were not such zealous churchmen and went to church, more subordinate to the established order and taking advantage of the opportunity to meet with the “world”, find out the news, and show off their outfits.

One of the most striking phenomena of the social life of the village were holidays dedicated to the Christian calendar, but which had much earlier pagan roots, originating in the ancient Slavic agrarian cult.

The oral folk calendar was of great importance for Russian peasants, which gave various practical instructions regarding the timing of agricultural work, weather forecasts and crop prospects. Its experts, mainly old men, enjoyed universal respect. But of course, this calendar reflected both correct observations of nature and false, superstitious ideas. It is also interesting that many labor processes were accompanied by rituals that coincided with the most important agricultural holidays. Rituals such as New Year's, Maslenitsa, Easter, Semitic, Trinity, bathing and others, according to the peasants, contributed to a good harvest.

→