How to prepare a project?

Project activity is one of the leading ones in our modern reality. This is a kind of reflection of it, where some product is obtained not by chance, but through targeted and well-planned work. Thus, it turns out that design is a series of specific algorithmic steps that begin with solving a real problem facing a person, and end with obtaining a certain result, moreover, a result planned at the very beginning of the project. In other words, any project is associated with forecasting, and therefore can serve as an effective tool for developing a child’s intelligence and creativity in learning. Therefore, project activities have become an integral part of the educational process. Teachers very often include elements of project activities in their lessons when they teach children to plan and act according to a plan they have drawn up.
How to develop a project in general? How to competently organize project activities? What is the structure of the project and what role can the teacher play? The authors of the article answer these questions, referring to various examples and citing specific facts.

How do you generally develop a project?

The idea for a project usually comes from the teacher. But he creates a problematic situation in such a way that the student seems to be interested in this problem no less and he has been trying to solve it for a long time, although he did not know how to do it.
The results of project activities can be presented at a competition: at the class, school and higher levels. There are projects that look great in the competition and can take prizes. The teacher is told by intuition and experience of participating in design competitions which project will definitely be a winner. The project does not have to be bright and large-scale, the main thing is that the topic is close and interesting to the student. Therefore, the teacher decides for himself what he wants: to teach the child to work on a project or to win a competition (which, however, does not reduce the value of the work, but, on the contrary, increases the students’ self-esteem).
For example, you can find out how indoor plants influence the physical and psycho-emotional state of a student, conduct an experiment, and then plant in the office those indoor plants that have a positive effect on a person’s emotions and his physical health. You can work in the theater through project activities. The result will be puppets, scripts and performances created using some technology for first-graders (the creative side of the project). The significance of such a project from any aspect of pedagogy cannot be overestimated.

How to competently organize project activities?

The success of any activity (including project activities) depends on its proper organization. The important rule here is the “trinity” - cooperation between teacher, student and parent. The teacher performs the function of a guiding, corrective, consulting member of the team, and most importantly, an inspirer and strategist. The student and the parent act in tandem, where the child is the ideological executor, and the parent helps to find the necessary information, and sometimes materialize ideas.
When working on a project, we consider the most correct direction to be the formation of various combinatorial groups: teacher + children, teacher + parents, teacher + children + parents.
Let's say, twice a week a teacher conducts classes with children on developing a project at the child level, teaching children to plan, collect information, introduce research methods, etc., and once a week (for example, on Friday evening) - according to the scheme : teacher + parent + student, where the basic principles, rules, structure of the project, and the actions of each are specified.
In this case, the project is considered at the child’s level, but with double support: from the teacher and from the parents.
This organization is also good because parents actively participate in the life of their child; their common creative interests go beyond the circle of usual home communication.

What is the project structure?

Let's take a closer look at all these stages.

1. Statement of the problem

The problem can come from the child (for example, by conducting a survey in the class, you can find out all the problems that concern students), or it can be directed by the teacher, that is, the teacher creates a situation that will show the children’s interest or disinterest in this problem. If the situation is accepted, we note again, the problem becomes personal and already comes from the child himself.

2. Project theme

The topic (project name) should reflect its main idea. For example, the project is called “A Million Scarlet Roses”. Children talk about the name being taken from famous song A. Pugacheva. This explains the legitimacy of choosing the name of the project. The problem that prompted the development of the project is related to the fact that one of the most wonderful flowers presented to beloved women, mothers, and friends dies almost immediately.
It is important that when developing a project, a problem must first arise, then the topic of the project is determined. The presentation is structured differently: first the topic is announced, then the problem that determined the name of the project.

3. Project goal

After from a number of delivered problematic issues the most significant one was chosen, the purpose of the project was determined.
For example, if you want to collect your own collection of wonders of the world in the classroom, a number of problematic issues may arise:

– What architectural buildings can be recreated in a school environment?
– What material is best to use for a particular structure?
– What material is most suitable for modeling? – etc.

By choosing the one that is most significant for you, you can determine the purpose of the project: for example, which material is most suitable for modeling architectural structures.

4. Project objectives

Most often, tasks are considered in the following way: tasks related to theory (theoretical tasks: study, find, collect information); tasks related to modeling or research (model the object being studied or conduct a research experiment); tasks related to presentation (carrying out a competent defense of the project).
When developing a project, the teacher not only sets tasks, but also discusses them with the children (even better, with the participation of parents). When defending a project, the objectives must be stated.

5. Hypothesis

A hypothesis is put forward based on the goal. Returning to the modeling of architectural structures, we can put forward the following hypothesis: suppose plasticine is the most optimal material that can be used in a school setting.

By examining the properties of the material, this hypothesis can be confirmed or refuted.

6. Work plan

Before we begin the practical development of the project (that is, having already decided on the goals and objectives, but not yet starting to act), we must introduce children to the research methods that they will use when working on the project:

think for yourself;

look at books;

ask adults;

access the computer;

observe;

consult a specialist;

conduct an experiment;

In the defense, we voice the relationship between research methods and assigned tasks. This is the action plan (that is, the practical implementation of tasks through methods).
For example, in defending the project, children say the following: “To collect information (this is a theoretical task), we asked adults: mothers, grandmothers, neighbors; we read books and encyclopedias; we turned to the Internet; we consulted with a specialist,” etc. At the same time, children name the methods they used to solve the theoretical problem associated with the search for information.
To solve the second problem of exploring or modeling, children talk about what research they did or what they modeled.
Here it is important to clearly state the results of the experiment or explain the need for modeling with an explanation of the legality of the choice of material.

Example 1. In the “Million Scarlet Roses” project, children conducted two experiments: “Rose – Water,” where they studied the effect of water on the condition of roses, and “Roses – Chemical Additives,” where they studied the effect of chemical additives on the longevity of cut roses. The conclusions of the study were clearly stated and tables and graphs based on the results of the experiments were presented as evidence.

Example 2. In defense of the project “Educational Program “Spain””, instead of research, modeling was performed. The children collected a “Ladder of Spanish Images”, which presented the most striking images of Spanish culture. Each of the speakers (and no more than three people can participate in the defense) talked about their part of the work and explained why they used exactly such material to present their image (fabric, plasticine, a certain technique, etc.).

It should be noted that if several people are involved in the project, then at this stage each speaker must talk about his personal contribution to the development of the overall project - in other words, briefly introduce his “subproject”.
We examined the implementation of a work plan to solve two problems: a theoretical problem and a problem associated with modeling or research. The third task, if you remember, was to conduct a presentation of the project. The implementation of this task continues throughout the entire defense of the project.

7. Project product

The logical outcome of any project should be the presentation of the project product - a certain material (although not always) substance, which must be meaningful and useful. The idea of ​​the project, the work to resolve goals and objectives, the inspiration that accompanied you throughout the entire work - all this should be reflected in the project product.
This could be a book in which you have collected the most important and useful information on the topic of the project; an album where an algorithm for performing a specific operation is presented; a disc with a recording or demonstration of an important stage of the project; scenario of an event developed by you, catalogue, film, etc. But in any case, everything that will be presented as a product of the project should be significant not only for you (as for the creators and developers of the project), but also for other persons whose interest will somehow come into contact with the topic of your project.
For example, the product of the “Million Scarlet Roses” project was a brochure that collected not only interesting information on roses, but also useful information: tips on caring for roses and the results of a study of water and chemical additives that affect the longevity of roses. This brochure was printed in several copies, and children gave it to friends, jury members, and teachers.
The product of the “Educational Program “Spain”” project was a large illustrated folding book, from which you can study Spain “from and to.” The “ladder of Spanish images” presented in it is useful not only for those who are interested in Spain, but also for all those who want to learn how to correctly identify the main images of any other country (state symbols, architecture, literature, dance, cuisine, holidays, etc. .).
Thus, the product of the project is the materialized result of all your work, which confirms the significance of the project in modern life.

8. Conclusions (result) of the project

Work on the project ends with a summary: whether you were able to achieve your goal or not, whether the hypothesis was confirmed, whether you are satisfied with your work. You can voice plans for the future.
It is important to note that the stages of project protection completely coincide with the stages of development, differing only in conciseness, accuracy and conciseness.

Hypothesis- this is a scientific assumption, assumption, true meaning which is uncertain.

The main ways to test (confirm, prove) a hypothesis:

1) based on information received from certain sources, analysis of existing knowledge, logic;

2) based on experiments, observations, surveys, etc.

There are hypotheses:

a) descriptive (the existence of a phenomenon is assumed);

b) explanatory (revealing the reasons for it);

c) descriptive-explanatory.

The following specific requirements apply to a scientific hypothesis: requirements:

It should not include too many provisions. As a rule, one basic thing, rarely more for special special needs;

It cannot include concepts and categories that are not unambiguous and not understood by the researcher himself;

When formulating a hypothesis, value judgments should be avoided; the hypothesis must correspond to the facts, be verifiable and applicable to to a wide circle phenomena;

An impeccable stylistic design, logical simplicity, and respect for continuity are required.

Examples

We assume that in the ideas of older preschoolers, external characteristics, rather than internal qualities, predominate in the image of a woman; the dominant sphere is professional.

An example of a hypothesis in a theoretical work

The hypothesis lies in the assumption that the influence of Byzantium on the culture of Kievan Rus, unlike other countries, was not so dominant, which made it possible to enrich the culture of the people with special originality, originality and uniqueness.

An example of a hypothesis in a work that has an empirical part

The hypothesis of the study is the assumption that the cohesion of the high school team is influenced by the quantitative ratio of male and female sexes. At the same time, the dominant number of boys determines that the group of teenagers has a higher percentage of cohesion.

Drawing up a research plan

The plan represents a certain order of sections/chapters, subsections/paragraphs that will be presented in the work. A properly drawn up plan contributes to better organization of the researcher’s independent activities, helps to systematize the material, and ensure the consistency of its presentation.

As a rule, the points of the plan correspond to the objectives of the study.

Example

Research problem	Plan item (table of contents)
	1. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE PROBLEM OF THE IMAGE OF A WOMAN IN THE VIEWS OF SENIOR PRESCHOOL CHILDREN
1. Describe the roles of women in accordance with gender characteristics.	1.1. Characteristics of women's roles in accordance with gender characteristics
2. Study the sources influencing the formation of a woman’s image.	1.2. Sources of formation of the image of a woman in preschool children
3. Identify and characterize the features of the image of a woman in the ideas of older preschoolers.	2. IDENTIFYING SENIOR PRESCHOOL CHILDREN’S VIEWS ABOUT THE IMAGE OF A WOMAN 2.1. Characteristics of the research tools and participants 2.2. Peculiarities of the image of a woman in the minds of children

Research hypothesis. Formation of research hypotheses. Types of hypotheses.

2.1. The concept and essence of a research hypothesis.

Research hypotheses are predictions about the results of a study based on inferences from theory or previously obtained data.

A hypothesis, like a concept, judgment, and inference, which are discussed in previous chapters, reflects the objective world. And in this it is similar to the mentioned forms of thinking. However, the hypothesis differs from them. Its specificity lies not in what it reflects in the material world, but in how it reflects, i.e. presumably, probably, and not categorically, unreliably. Therefore, it is no coincidence that the term “hypothesis” itself, translated from Greek language means "guess".

It is known that when defining a concept through the closest genus and species difference, it is necessary to point out the essential features that distinguish this type from other species belonging to the same nearest genus. The closest genus for a hypothesis as a certain result of cognitive activity “is the concept of “assumption”.

Ideally, hypotheses should be so definite and specific that they indicate the specific criteria needed to test them, and that they can be unambiguously confirmed or refuted.

The process of generating testable hypotheses serves to clarify questions that arise in connection with a particular research problem. This forces the researcher to determine precisely the nature of the data to be collected necessary to make a decision regarding the hypothesis being tested, as well as the appropriate way to analyze it.

Scientific research is one of the types research activities, the process of developing new scientific knowledge.

All research, to be successful, must have an initial focus. Sources of orientation are:

Research objectives;

Previous experience;

Subconscious unformalized information.

Depending on the degree of study of the problem, preliminary orientation in the form of a hypothesis, concept, or research algorithm.

Hypothesis is an a priori, intuitive assumption about the possible properties, structure, parameters, effectiveness of the object under study; a scientific assumption whose true meaning is uncertain; a statement to be verified for truth about the presence (or absence) of certain cause-and-effect relationships between certain processes or phenomena.

Based on this, it is necessary to highlight the following essential features of the hypothesis.

Firstly, a hypothesis is a special form of development of scientific knowledge. The construction of hypotheses in science makes it possible to move from individual scientific facts related to a phenomenon to their generalization and knowledge of the laws of development of this phenomenon.

Secondly, the construction of a scientific hypothesis is always accompanied by an assumption related to the theoretical explanation of the phenomena under study. It always appears in the form of a separate judgment or a system of interrelated judgments about the properties of individual facts or the natural connections of phenomena. This judgment is always problematic; it expresses probabilistic theoretical knowledge. Sometimes a hypothesis arises from deduction.

Thirdly, a hypothesis is a well-founded assumption based on specific facts. Therefore, the emergence of a hypothesis is a non-chaotic and not subconscious, but a natural and logically harmonious cognitive process that leads a person to obtain new knowledge about objective reality.

The basis of the hypothesis is the entire body of data on the problem being solved.

The main source of a hypothesis is intuition, i.e. the ability to comprehend the truth by directly observing it without justification through evidence.

The basis of intuition is subconscious information and the predictive abilities of an individual to put forward hypotheses adequate to this information.

An important condition for putting forward a rational hypothesis is its consistency with existing knowledge. The concept of consistency, taken in its entirety, does not have the proper degree of certainty.

It is hardly possible to list all types of correspondence of a hypothesis to the fragment of knowledge on the material of which it arose, since this correspondence covers not so much formal as substantive aspects of cognitive processes.

However, there is one indisputable element of the concept of consistency that is directly related to formal logic and can be characterized quite strictly.

From a methodological point of view, the minimum (and from a logical point of view, necessary) indicator of the correspondence of a hypothesis to the fragment of knowledge on the basis of which it is put forward is consistency.

2.2. Types of hypotheses.

There are the following types of hypotheses:

Descriptive - presupposing the existence of any phenomenon (process);

Explanatory - revealing the causes of a phenomenon (process);

Descriptive and explanatory;

Hypothesis as a method of developing scientific knowledge, including the formulation and subsequent experimental verification of the assumption that makes up the hypothesis. It is considered as a structural element of scientific theory.

There are several other types of hypothesis, such as:

Hell hok hypothesis.

Ad hoc hypothesis is an assumption specifically adopted to describe or explain a particular phenomenon and not systematically related to previous knowledge about it.

Analogy.

Analogy is a type of inference in which the knowledge obtained from studying object A is transferred to a less studied object B, which is similar to object A in essential properties. Analogy serves as one source scientific hypotheses.

Causal hypothesis.

A causal hypothesis is an assumption about the existence of a cause-and-effect relationship between phenomena.

Competing hypothesis.

A competing hypothesis is an alternative explanation for the results of a study that logically cannot be true if the original hypothesis is true.

Scientific hypothesis

To be scientific, a hypothesis must meet the following requirements: a) it must be the only analogue this process, phenomena;

b) it must explain as many circumstances as possible related to this phenomenon;

c) it must be able to predict new phenomena that are not among those on the basis of which it was built.

Working hypothesis

A working hypothesis is an empirically untested assumption that predicts the existence of some relationship between variables or objects. Working hypotheses are used to develop a preliminary plan for scientific research.

Statistical hypothesis

A statistical hypothesis is an assumption about certain empirical characteristics of the distribution in a given population.

Heuristic hypothesis

A heuristic hypothesis is an untested assumption about relationships that stimulate further scientific research.

A general hypothesis is a type of hypothesis that explains the cause of a phenomenon or group of phenomena as a whole.

A particular hypothesis is a type of hypothesis that explains any particular aspect or separate property of a phenomenon or event.

As scientific propositions, hypotheses must satisfy the requirements of fundamental verifiability, i.e. the properties:

Falsifiability (refutation);

Verifiability (confirmation).

The following requirements are presented to the hypothesis:

It should not include too many provisions: as a rule, one main thing, rarely more;

It cannot include concepts and categories that are not unambiguous and not clear to the researcher himself;

When formulating a hypothesis, value judgments should be avoided;

The hypothesis must correspond to the facts, be testable and applicable to a wide range of phenomena;

What is required is impeccable stylistic design, logical simplicity, and respect for continuity.

During the MIS process, a number of hypotheses are put forward:

Regarding the predicted levels of target efficiency, costs, system risks (reflect managers’ expectations regarding the system);

Regarding options for constructing a system for monitoring the actual results of the system’s functioning (hypotheses regarding the influence and reasons that gave rise to the actual results);

Relatively possible options eliminating deficiencies or improving the activities of the MIS, etc.

After hypotheses are put forward, they are examined through a process of judgment and analysis. It is either confirmed as true, and it is transformed into real knowledge, or it is refuted.

2.3. Formation of research hypotheses.

In the practice of researching control systems, it is customary to distinguish the following stages of constructing hypotheses:

1. Proposing hypotheses.

Proposing hypotheses is the main type of scientific creativity associated with the objective need for new knowledge. In this case, the hypothesis put forward must be: sufficiently theoretically reliable (continuous with previous knowledge, not contradict the facts of science); clearly logically consistent with the problem and goal; include concepts that have received preliminary clarification and interpretation; applicable to the data contained in the preliminary description of the subject of research; provide the opportunity for empirical verification (verification) with the help of substantive and methodological means of cognition, which ensures the transition from it to theory and law.

To put forward a hypothesis, it is necessary to have a certain set of facts related to the observed phenomenon, which would justify the probability of a certain assumption and explain the unknown. Therefore, the construction of a hypothesis is associated, first of all, with the collection of facts that are related to the phenomenon that we are explaining and that do not coincide with the existing explanation.

Based on the collected facts, an assumption is made about what the phenomenon under study is, i.e. a hypothesis is formulated in the narrow sense of the word. The assumption in a hypothesis is, in logical terms, a judgment (or a system of judgments). It is expressed as a result of logical processing of the collected facts. The facts on the basis of which a hypothesis is put forward can be understood logically in the form of analogy, induction or deduction. Making an assumption is the main content of a hypothesis. The assumption is the answer to the question posed about the essence, cause, connections of the observed phenomenon. The assumption contains the knowledge that is arrived at as a result of generalizing the facts.

To become a scientific hypothesis, a proposition must satisfy the following requirements:

The assumption should not be logically contradictory, nor should it contradict the fundamental principles of science;

The assumption must be fundamentally testable;

The assumption must not contradict the previously established facts that it is intended to explain;

The assumption should be applicable to the widest possible range of phenomena. This requirement allows us to choose the most constructive from two or more hypotheses that explain the same range of phenomena.

2.Formulation (development) of hypotheses.

The hypothesis that has been put forward must be formulated. The course and result of its testing depend on the correctness, clarity and certainty of the formulation of the hypothesis.

The development of a hypothesis is associated with the derivation of the hypothesis from its logical consequences. Assuming the proposition to be true, a series of consequences are deduced from it, which must exist if the alleged cause exists.

Logical consequences derived from hypotheses cannot be identified with consequences - links in the cause-and-effect chain of phenomena, always chronologically following the cause that caused them. Logical consequences are understood as thoughts not only about the circumstances caused by the phenomenon being studied, but also about the circumstances preceding it in time, about the accompanying and subsequent ones, as well as about the circumstances caused by other reasons, but being in some connection with the phenomenon under study.

Comparison of the consequences derived from the assumption with established facts of reality makes it possible to either refute the hypothesis or prove its truth. This is done through the process of testing a hypothesis. Testing a hypothesis always occurs through practice. A hypothesis is generated by practice, and only practice decides the question of whether a hypothesis is true or false.

3. Testing hypotheses.

In the case when the hypothesis has passed all three stages of development, its testing leads to one of the following results:

1) refutation (establishing falsity);

2) change in the degree of probability;

3) proof (establishing the truth).

Let us consider separately the consequences of obtaining each of the possible results.

At first glance, a refutation of a hypothesis is an indicator of failure, the wrong direction of research, erroneous methods, etc. In fact, a hypothesis ideally contains the idea of ​​self-negation: it must either turn into reliable knowledge (lose its hypothetical nature), or, having proven untenable, give way to other hypotheses.

If a hypothesis is proven (turned into reliable knowledge), its productivity is undeniable. From this point of view, refuting a hypothesis also has a certain cognitive significance; it allows one to overcome delusion and thereby contributes to the search for truth.

Confirmation of other consequences makes the hypothesis even more probable, but does not prove it.

Proof, establishing the truth, confirming the consequences derived from a hypothesis increases its likelihood.

Since a hypothesis is always represented by a judgment or a group of judgments, the procedure for establishing its truth in its structure should, in principle, be in many ways similar to the operation of proof as such with all the inherent latest features. It must contain arguments, demonstrative inference diagrams, and obey the rules of proof.

There are also several more methods for testing hypotheses that are used in the study of control systems:

Direct confirmation (refutation) of the hypothesis.

The essence of this method is that the alleged individual facts or phenomena in the course of subsequent cognition find confirmation (or refutation) in practice through their direct perception. In cases of predictive hypotheses, it is inappropriate to wait for their direct confirmation by practice, since time will be lost for the necessary actions. This is why logical demonstration (refutation) of hypotheses is widely used in science.

Logical proof (refutation) proceeds indirectly, since phenomena that took place in the past, or that exist at the present time, but are inaccessible to direct sensory perception, are cognized.

The main ways to logically prove a hypothesis are:

Inductive - increasingly complete confirmation of a hypothesis or the derivation of consequences from it using arguments, including indications of facts and laws;

Deductive - deriving a hypothesis from other, more general and already proven provisions; inclusion of a hypothesis in a system of scientific knowledge in which it is consistent with all other provisions; demonstration of the heuristic, predictive power of a hypothesis when, with its help, a fairly wide range of phenomena is correctly explained and predicted.

Logical proof (refutation), depending on the method of justification, can take the form of direct and indirect evidence (refutation).

Direct proof (refutation) of a hypothesis proceeds by confirming or refuting the derived logical consequences with newly discovered facts.

The logical process of deriving consequences from a put forward assumption and justifying the truth or falsity of a hypothesis, as already noted, very often occurs in the form of a conditionally categorical inference.

Another type of logical proof (refutation) of a hypothesis is indirect proof (refutation). It is used when there are several hypotheses that explain the same phenomenon.

Indirect proof proceeds by refuting and eliminating all false assumptions, on the basis of which the reliability of the only remaining assumption is asserted. The conclusion in this case proceeds in the form of a negative-affirmative mode of separative-categorical conclusion.

The conclusion in this conclusion can be regarded as reliable if: firstly, an exhaustive series of assumptions have been constructed to explain the phenomenon under study; secondly, in the process of testing hypotheses, all false assumptions are refuted. The assumption indicating the remaining cause will in this case be the only one, and the knowledge expressed in it will no longer appear as problematic, but as reliable.

Thus, having revealed the problem of the essence, structure and main types of the hypothesis, it is necessary to note its important role in the process of studying control systems. A hypothesis is a necessary form of development of management systems, without which the transition to a new, more advanced enterprise management is impossible.

The hypothesis plays a significant role in control systems and serves initial stage formation of almost every management theory.

If testing a hypothesis does not end with either proof or refutation, but only changes the degree of its probability, then the three-stage cycle of its development can only conditionally (temporarily) be considered completed. In fact, the hypothesis remained a hypothesis, and this presupposes the possibility of its further development - drawing conclusions, testing them, etc.

A hypothesis is an argument about a particular phenomenon, which is based on the subjective view of a person directing his actions in some established direction. If the result is not yet known to the person, then a generalized assumption is created, and checking it allows you to adjust the overall focus of the work. This is the scientific concept of a hypothesis. Is it possible to simplify the meaning of this concept?

Explanation in “non-scientific” language

A hypothesis is the ability to predict, predict the results of work, and this is the most important component of virtually every scientific discovery. It helps to calculate future errors and blunders and reduce their number significantly. In this case, a hypothesis generated directly during work can be partially proven. If the result is known, there is no point in the assumption, and then no hypotheses are put forward. This is a simple definition of the concept of hypothesis. Now we can talk about how it is built and discuss its most interesting types.

How is a hypothesis born?

Creating an argument in the human mind is not a simple thought process. The researcher must be able to create and update acquired knowledge, and he must also have the following qualities:

1. Problem vision. This is the ability to show the paths of scientific development, establish its main trends and connect disparate tasks together. Combines the problem vision with the already acquired skills and knowledge, instinct and abilities of a person in research.
2. Alternative character. This trait allows a person to do most interesting conclusions, finding something completely new in known facts.
3. Intuition. This term refers to an unconscious process and is not based on logical reasoning.

What is the essence of the hypothesis?

A hypothesis reflects objective reality. In this it is similar to different forms of thinking, but it is also different from them. The main specificity of a hypothesis is that it reflects facts in the material world in a conjectural manner; it does not assert categorically and reliably. Therefore, a hypothesis is an assumption.

Everyone knows that when establishing a concept through the closest genus and difference, it will also be necessary to indicate distinctive features. The closest genus for a hypothesis in the form of any result of an activity is the concept of “assumption”. What is the difference between a hypothesis and a guess, fantasy, prediction, guessing? The most shocking hypotheses are not based on speculation alone; they all have certain characteristics. To answer this question, you will need to identify essential features.

Features of the hypothesis

If we talk about this concept, then it is worth establishing it characteristic features.

1. A hypothesis is a special form of development of scientific knowledge. It is hypotheses that allow science to move from individual facts to a specific phenomenon, generalization of knowledge and knowledge of the laws of development of a particular phenomenon.
2. A hypothesis is based on making assumptions that are associated with a theoretical explanation of certain phenomena. This concept acts as a separate judgment or a whole line of interrelated judgments, natural phenomena. Judgment is always problematic for researchers, because this concept talks about probabilistic theoretical knowledge. It happens that hypotheses are put forward on the basis of deduction. An example is K. A. Timiryazev’s shocking hypothesis about photosynthesis. It was confirmed, but initially it all started from assumptions in the law of conservation of energy.
3. A hypothesis is an educated guess that is based on some specific facts. Therefore, a hypothesis cannot be called a chaotic and subconscious process; it is a completely logical and logical mechanism that allows a person to expand his knowledge to obtain new information- to understand objective reality. Again, we can recall the shocking hypothesis of N. Copernicus about the new heliocentric system, which revealed the idea that the Earth revolves around the Sun. He outlined all his ideas in the work “On the Rotation of the Celestial Spheres”, all guesses were based on a real factual basis and the inconsistency of the then still valid geocentric concept was shown.

These distinctive features, taken together, will make it possible to distinguish a hypothesis from other types of assumption, as well as establish its essence. As you can see, a hypothesis is a probabilistic assumption about the causes of a particular phenomenon, the reliability of which cannot now be verified and proven, but this assumption allows us to explain some of the causes of the phenomenon.

It is important to remember that the term “hypothesis” is always used in a dual sense. A hypothesis is an assumption that explains a phenomenon. A hypothesis is also spoken of as a method of thinking that puts forward some assumption, and then develops the development and proof of this fact.

A hypothesis is often constructed in the form of an assumption about the cause of past phenomena. As an example, we can cite our knowledge about the formation solar system, the earth's core, the birth of the Earth, and so on.

When does a hypothesis cease to exist?

This is only possible in a couple of cases:

1. The hypothesis receives confirmation and turns into a reliable fact - it becomes part of the general theory.
2. The hypothesis is refuted and becomes only false knowledge.

This can happen during hypothesis testing, when the accumulated knowledge is sufficient to establish the truth.

What is included in the structure of a hypothesis?

A hypothesis is built from the following elements:

• foundation - accumulation different facts, statements (whether justified or not);
• form - the accumulation of various conclusions that will lead from the basis of a hypothesis to an assumption;
• assumption - conclusions from facts, statements that describe and justify a hypothesis.

It is worth noting that hypotheses are always the same in logical structure, but they differ in content and functions performed.

What can be said about the concept of hypothesis and types?

In the process of the evolution of knowledge, hypotheses begin to differ in cognitive qualities, as well as in the object of study. Let's take a closer look at each of these types.

Based on their functions in the cognitive process, descriptive and explanatory hypotheses are distinguished:

1. A descriptive hypothesis is a statement that speaks about the inherent properties of the object under study. Typically, an assumption allows us to answer the questions “What is this or that object?” or “What properties does the object have?” This type of hypothesis can be put forward in order to identify the composition or structure of an object, reveal its mechanism of action or features of its activity, and determine functional features. Among descriptive hypotheses there are existential hypotheses that speak of the existence of some object.
2. An explanatory hypothesis is a statement based on the reasons for the appearance of a particular object. Such hypotheses make it possible to explain why a certain event occurred or what are the reasons for the appearance of an object.

History shows that with the development of knowledge, more and more existential hypotheses appear that tell about the existence of a specific object. Next, descriptive hypotheses appear that tell about the properties of those objects, and finally explanatory hypotheses are born that reveal the mechanism and reasons for the appearance of the object. As you can see, there is a gradual complication of the hypothesis in the process of learning new things.

What hypotheses are there for the object of study? There are general and private.

1. General hypotheses help to substantiate assumptions about natural relationships and empirical regulators. They act as a kind of scaffolding in the development scientific knowledge. Once hypotheses are proven, they become scientific theories and contribute to science.
2. A partial hypothesis is an assumption with justification about the origin and quality of facts, events or phenomena. If there was a single circumstance that caused the appearance of other facts, then knowledge takes the form of hypotheses.
3. There is also such a type of hypothesis as a working one. This is an assumption put forward at the beginning of the study, which is a conditional assumption and allows you to combine facts and observations into a single whole and give them an initial explanation. The main specificity of the working hypothesis is that it is accepted conditionally or temporarily. It is extremely important for the researcher to systematize the acquired knowledge given at the beginning of the study. Afterwards they will need to be processed and a further route to be outlined. A working hypothesis is exactly what is needed for this.

What is a version?

The concept of a scientific hypothesis has already been clarified, but there is another such unusual term - version. What is it? In political, historical or sociological research, as well as in forensic investigative practice, often when explaining certain facts or their combination, a number of hypotheses are put forward that can explain the facts in different ways. These hypotheses are called versions.

There are public and private versions.

1. The general version is an assumption that tells about the crime as a whole in the form of a single system of certain circumstances and actions. This version answers not one, but a whole series questions.
2. A partial version is an assumption that explains the individual circumstances of a crime. From private versions, one general version is built.

What standards must a hypothesis meet?

The very concept of a hypothesis in the rules of law must meet certain requirements:

• it cannot have several theses;
• the judgment must be framed clearly and logically;
• the argument should not include judgments or concepts of an ambiguous nature that cannot yet be clarified by the researcher;
• the judgment must include a method for solving the problem in order to become part of the study;
• when presenting an assumption, it is prohibited to use value judgments, because the hypothesis must be confirmed by facts, after which it will be tested and applied to a wide range;
• the hypothesis must answer given topic, subject of research, tasks; all assumptions unnaturally tied to the topic are eliminated;
• a hypothesis cannot contradict existing theories, but there are exceptions.

How is a hypothesis developed?

A person's hypotheses are a thought process. Of course, it is difficult to imagine a general and unified process for constructing a hypothesis: all because the conditions for developing an assumption depend on practical activities and on the specifics of a particular problem. However, it is still possible to identify the general boundaries of the stages of the thought process that lead to the emergence of a hypothesis. This:

• putting forward a hypothesis;
• development;
• examination.

Now we need to consider each stage of the emergence of the hypothesis.

Proposing a hypothesis

To put forward a hypothesis, you will need to have some facts related to a certain phenomenon, and they must justify the probability of the assumption, explain the unknown. Therefore, first there is a collection of materials, knowledge and facts related to a certain phenomenon, which will be further explained.

Based on the materials, an assumption is made about what this phenomenon is, or, in other words, a hypothesis is formulated in a narrow sense. An assumption in this case is a certain judgment that is expressed as a result of processing the collected facts. The facts on which the hypothesis is based can be logically understood. This is how the main content of the hypothesis appears. The assumption must answer questions about the essence, causes of the phenomenon, and so on.

Development and testing

Once a hypothesis is put forward, its development begins. If we assume the assumption made to be true, then a number of definite consequences should appear. In this case, logical consequences cannot be identified with the conclusions of the cause-and-effect chain. Logical consequences are thoughts that explain not only the circumstances of a phenomenon, but also the reasons for its occurrence, and so on. Comparing the facts from the hypothesis with already established data allows you to confirm or refute the hypothesis.

This is only possible as a result of testing the hypothesis in practice. A hypothesis is always generated by practice, and only practice can decide whether a hypothesis is true or false. Testing in practice allows you to transform a hypothesis into reliable knowledge about the process (whether it is false or true). Therefore, one should not reduce the truth of a hypothesis to a specific and unified logical action; When checking in practice, different methods and methods of proof or refutation are used.

Confirmation or refutation of the hypothesis

Hypothesis of work in scientific world used often. This method allows you to confirm or refute individual facts in legal or economic practice through perception. Examples include the discovery of the planet Neptune, the discovery clean water in Lake Baikal, the establishment of islands in the Arctic Ocean, and so on. All this was once hypotheses, but now it is scientific established facts. The problem is that in some cases it is difficult or impossible to proceed with practice, and testing all assumptions is not possible.

For example, now there is a shocking hypothesis that modern Russian is deeper than Old Russian, but the problem is that it is now impossible to hear oral Old Russian speech. It is impossible to verify in practice whether the Russian Tsar Ivan the Terrible became a monk or not.

In cases where prognostic hypotheses are put forward, it is inappropriate to expect their immediate and direct confirmation in practice. That is why in the scientific world they use such logical proof or refutation of hypotheses. Logical proof or refutation proceeds in an indirect way, because phenomena from the past or today are learned that are inaccessible to sensory perception.

The main ways of logical proof of a hypothesis or its refutation:

1. Inductive way. More complete confirmation or refutation of a hypothesis and the derivation of certain consequences from it thanks to arguments that include laws and facts.
2. Deductive way. Derivation or refutation of a hypothesis from a number of other, more general, but already proven ones.
3. Inclusion of a hypothesis in the system of scientific knowledge, where it is consistent with other facts.

Logical proof or refutation can take place in the direct or indirect form of proof or refutation.

The important role of hypothesis

Having revealed the problem of the essence and structure of the hypothesis, it is also worth noting its important role in practical and theoretical activity. A hypothesis is a necessary form of development of scientific knowledge; without it it is impossible to understand something new. It plays an important role in the scientific world and serves as the foundation for the formation of virtually every scientific theory. All significant discoveries in science did not arise in a ready-made form; these were the most shocking hypotheses, which sometimes they did not even want to consider.

Everything always starts small. All physics was built on countless shocking hypotheses, which were confirmed or refuted by scientific practice. Therefore it is worth mentioning some interesting ideas.

1. Some particles move from the future to the past. Physicists have their own set of rules and prohibitions, which are considered to be canon, but with the advent of tachyons, it would seem that all norms have been shaken. A tachyon is a particle that can violate all accepted laws of physics at once: its mass is imaginary, and it moves faster than the speed of light. The theory has been put forward that tachyons can travel back in time. Theorist Gerald Feinberg introduced the particle in 1967 and declared that tachyons are new class particles. The scientist argued that this is actually a generalization of antimatter. Feinberg had a lot of like-minded people, and the idea caught on for a long time However, refutations still appeared. Tachyons have not completely disappeared from physics, but still no one has been able to detect them either in space or in accelerators. If the hypothesis were true, people would be able to contact their ancestors.
2. A drop of water polymer could destroy the oceans. This one of the most shocking hypotheses suggests that water can be transformed into a polymer - this is a component in which individual molecules become links in a large chain. In this case, the properties of water should change. The hypothesis was put forward by chemist Nikolai Fedyakin after an experiment with water vapor. The hypothesis has frightened scientists for a long time, because it was assumed that one drop of an aqueous polymer could turn all the water on the planet into a polymer. However, the refutation of the most shocking hypothesis was not long in coming. The scientist’s experiment was repeated, but no confirmation of the theory was found.

There were a lot of such shocking hypotheses at one time, but many of them were not confirmed after a series of scientific experiments, but they were not forgotten. Fantasy and scientific justification are the two main components for every scientist.

Lyudmila Kazarina
Purpose of the hypothesis in the study

Species hypotheses:

1) According to hierarchical importance: General Auxiliary

2) By breadth of use: Universal Private

3) According to the degree of validity: Primary Secondary.

Requirements for hypotheses:

1. Purposefulness – providing an explanation of all the facts characterizing the problem being solved.

2. Relevance - reliance on facts, ensuring the admissibility of recognition hypotheses, both in science and in practice.

3. Predictiveness – providing prediction of results research.

4. Verifiability – allows the fundamental possibility of verification hypotheses, empirically, based on observation or experiment. This should provide or deny hypothesis or confirmation.

5. Consistency – achieved by the logical consistency of all structural components hypotheses.

6. Compatibility – ensuring connection between retractable assumptions with existing scientific, theoretical and practical knowledge.

7. Potentiality - includes possibilities of use hypotheses by the quantity and quality of the conclusions and consequences made.

8. Simplicity – based on consistency and a large number of contents hypothesis initial premises for obtaining conclusions and consequences, as well as on a sufficiently large number of facts explained by it.

Formation and development hypotheses includes:

1) Preparatory stage

2) Formative stage

3) Experimental stage

After development hypotheses concept is being formed research is a system of fundamental views, ideas and principles research, i.e. his general plan (idea).

GOAL, OBJECTIVES AND RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

Target research- this is the scientific result that should be obtained as a result of everything research.

It should be noted that the goal research some scientists recommend placing after the problem research, i.e. in front of the object and subject, and some – after the object and subject. Here the choice is up to the supervisor.

It is usually recommended to begin the formulation of the goal with a perfective verb in indefinite form : identify, justify, develop, determine etc. etc. For example, if the topic research –“Control of the level of student achievements in the developmental education system”, then the goal can be formulated as follows way: “Identify and theoretically substantiate the features of monitoring the level of student achievement as a component of developmental education.”

After object definitions, the subject and purpose of the research, its hypothesis is put forward. A hypothesis is an assumption, put forward to explain a phenomenon that has not been confirmed or refuted. A hypothesis is a proposed solution to a problem.. She defines the main direction of scientific research and is the main methodological tool organizing the entire process research.

Towards scientific the hypothesis is presented the next two main requirements:

- hypothesis should not contain concepts that are not specified;

It must be verifiable using available techniques.

Formulating hypothesis, the researcher must make an assumption about, how, under what conditions the problem research and the set goal will be successfully achieved.

What does it mean to check hypothesis? This means checking the consequences that logically follow from it. As a result of the check hypothesis confirm or deny.

Hypothesis must be put forward in research, suggesting pedagogical experiment aimed at confirming hypotheses. IN research in the history of pedagogy hypothesis, as a rule, not provided.

Let's give an example of the formulation hypotheses on the topic: “Control as a component of the developmental system will ensure the development of schoolchildren, If:

Stimulates and promotes unity in achieving educational, educational and developmental learning goals;

Unity takes into account the process and result of the activity;

- defines dynamics of student advancement;

Promotes self-development of students.

Formulated goal and research hypothesis determines the research objectives, i.e. tasks follow not only from the goal, but also hypotheses. Tasks research is those investigative activities, which must be completed to achieve the goal set in the work, solve a problem or to verify the formulated research hypotheses. As a rule, there are three groups of tasks that are related With:

1) identifying the essential features and criteria of the phenomenon or process being studied;

2) justification of ways to solve the problem;

3) formulating the leading conditions for ensuring an effective solution to the problem.

Sequence of problem solving research determines its structure, i.e., each problem must find its solution in one of the paragraphs of the work. In the process of developing a task system, it is necessary define, which of them require primarily studying the literature, which require modernization, generalization or combination of existing approaches and, finally, which of them are problematic and need to be solved specifically in this research.

For example, as tasks research can be formulated following:

1) based on the analysis of psychological and pedagogical literature, highlight the conceptual and categorical apparatus research and systematize the data given by scientists definitions of these concepts;

2) identify the main approaches and points of view of scientists to solving the problem posed (or the state of development of the problem posed in the literature being studied);

3) study the state of solving the problem posed in teaching practice (to study the experience of teachers in solving the problem).

Is. assumes conducting an experiment, then to the listed tasks add:

1) develop an organizational and pedagogical system (or didactic model, or methodology) formation. ;

2) experimentally test its effectiveness.

Objectives must be interrelated and must reflect the overall path to achieving the goal. Unified requirements and algorithms for formulating tasks research does not exist. It is possible to outline only general guidelines for their definitions.

One of the tasks may be related to the characteristic subject of research, with identification of the essence of the problem, theoretical justification of ways to solve it. Let us give several examples of possible formulation of the first tasks:

Conduct an analysis of theoretical approaches to the problem...;

Analyze psychological literature on the problem...;

Reveal and specify the essence of the concept “….”.

The second task is aimed at revealing general ways to solve the problem and analyzing the conditions for its solution. For example:

Carry out diagnostics...;

Explore the features...

Identify the relationship...;

Develop a program aimed at...

IN research one must distinguish between purpose and result. As noted, the goal is that suggest receive when conducting research. And the result is what we actually got. The question of how we got this is answered by the methodology. Methodology research explains, on which subjects, using what methods, under what conditions this result was achieved.

Research hypothesis

The solution to a scientific problem never begins directly with an experiment. This procedure precedes a very important stage related to promotion hypotheses. `` Scientific a hypothesis is a statement containing assumption regarding the decision facing problem researcher. Essentially hypothesis- This main idea solutions. possible errors in the wording hypotheses the following should be adhered to approaches:

1. Hypothesis must be formulated in clear, literate language appropriate subject of research. The need for strict compliance with this requirement is due to the fact that sports science is a complex discipline. Therefore, there are frequent attempts to researching certain objects to put forward hypotheses in the language of science, having as the subject of research is completely different. For example, teachers, studying the performance of athletes and ways to increase it, often try to find the answer to the question posed in the biomechanical mechanisms of this phenomenon. However hypothesis that that the performance of an athlete, say a cyclist, depends on certain combination of aerobic and anaerobic energy supply mechanisms looks at least incorrect, since the pedagogical phenomenon is discussed in the language of biology. Moreover, biochemists themselves do not yet know a reliable answer to this question.

2. Hypothesis must either be justified previous knowledge, follow from them or, in the case of complete independence, at least not contradict them. A scientific idea, if it is true, does not appear out of nowhere. No wonder one of the aphorisms attributed to I. Newton sounds So: ``He saw far only because he stood on his mighty shoulders predecessors"". This emphasizes the continuity of generations in scientific activity. This requirement is easily fulfilled if, after a clear statement of the problem researcher will seriously study the literature on the issue that interests him. In general, it should be noted that reading for future use is not very effective. Only when the problem has taken over everyone's thoughts researcher, one can expect benefits from working with literature, and hypothesis will not be divorced from already accumulated knowledge. Most often this happens when patterns found in one sport or group of sports are transferred to everything else. This is done hypothetical assumption based on the principle of analogy.

3. Hypothesis can perform functions of protecting others hypotheses in the face of new experienced and old knowledge. So, for example, in the theory and methodology of physical education it is believed that physical training athletes includes several sections, determined tasks of improving basic physical qualities such as speed, strength, endurance, flexibility and agility. In this regard, it was put forward hypothesis that that the level of sports results in sports with the manifestation of certain physical qualities depend on the level of their development in a particular athlete. Thus, the results in cyclic forms (long distances) determine the level of endurance of the athlete, the strength indicator in the barbell, etc.

4. Hypothesis must be formulated so that the truth put forward in it assumptions were not obvious. For example, from those conducted by individual authors research and practical experience it is known that junior school age (seven years) favorable for the development of coordination abilities. That., assumption that, that “pedagogical influences aimed at developing these abilities give the greatest effect if they are purposefully applied precisely at this age,” can serve as a general hypothesis when conducting research related to the development of methods for developing coordination abilities. At work hypothesis, it is advisable to determine those provisions, which may raise doubts, need proof and protection. Therefore the working hypothesis in a separate case it may look like this way: ``Supposed that the use of a standard training program based on the principles of health training will qualitatively increase the level of coordination abilities of seven-year-old children" - it is in this case that the effectiveness of the developed methodology researcher.

Ultimately, hypothesis precedes both solving the problem as a whole and each task separately. The hypothesis is refined during the research process, supplemented or changed.

Hypotheses differ from ordinary guesses and topic assumptions that they are adopted based on an analysis of available reliable information and compliance certain scientific criteria.

IN general view the hypothesis can be considered: as part of a scientific theory;

as scientific assumption, requiring subsequent experimental verification.