Early revival. Early Renaissance, High Renaissance, Venetian art, late Renaissance, Renaissance culture - cultural studies. High Renaissance period

In the first decades of the 15th century, a decisive turning point occurred in the art of Italy. The emergence of a powerful center of the Renaissance in Florence entailed a renewal of the entire Italian artistic culture. The work of Donatello, Masaccio and their associates marks the victory of Renaissance realism, which differed significantly from the “realism of detail” that was characteristic of the art of the late Trecento. The works of these masters are imbued with the ideals of humanism. They exalt a person, raise him above the level of everyday life. In their struggle with the Gothic tradition, artists of the early Renaissance sought support in antiquity and the art of the Proto-Renaissance. What the masters of the Proto-Renaissance sought only intuitively, by touch, is now based on precise knowledge. Italian art of the 15th century is distinguished by great diversity. The difference in conditions in which local schools are formed gives rise to a variety of artistic movements. The new art, which triumphed in advanced Florence at the beginning of the 15th century, did not immediately gain recognition and spread in other regions of the country. While Bruneleschi, Masaccio, and Donatello worked in Florence, the traditions of Byzantine and Gothic art were still alive in northern Italy, only gradually supplanted by the Renaissance.

Quattrocento

From the end of the 14th century. power in Florence passes to the house of Medici bankers. Its head, Cosimo de' Medici, became the unofficial ruler of Florence. Writers, poets, scientists, architects and artists flock to the court of Cosimo de' Medici (and later of his grandson Lorenzo, nicknamed the Magnificent). The age of medical culture begins. The first signs of a new, bourgeois culture and the emergence of a new, bourgeois worldview were especially clearly manifested in the 15th century, during the Quattrocento period. But precisely because the process of the formation of a new culture and a new worldview was not completed during this period (this happened later, in the era of the final decomposition and collapse of feudal relations), the 15th century is full of creative freedom, bold daring, and admiration for human individuality. This is truly the age of humanism. In addition, this is an era full of faith in the limitless power of the mind, an era of intellectualism. The perception of reality is tested by experience, experiment, and controlled by reason. Hence the spirit of order and measure that is so characteristic of the art of the Renaissance. Geometry, mathematics, anatomy, the study of the proportions of the human body are of great importance for artists; it is then that they begin to carefully study the structure of man; in the 15th century Italian artists also solved the problem of rectilinear perspective, which had already matured in the art of the Trecento. Antiquity played a huge role in the formation of the secular culture of the Quattrocento. The 15th century demonstrates direct connections with the Renaissance culture. Since 1439, since the ecumenical church council held in Florence, to which they arrived accompanied by a magnificent retinue Byzantine emperor John Palaiologos and the Patriarch of Constantinople, and especially after the fall of Byzantium in 1453, when many scientists who fled from the East found refuge in Florence, this city became one of the main centers in Italy for the study of the Greek language, as well as literature and philosophy Ancient Greece. The Platonic Academy is founded in Florence; the Laurentian Library contains a rich collection of ancient manuscripts. And yet the leading role in cultural life Florence in the first half and mid-15th century undoubtedly belonged to art. The first art museums appeared, filled with statues, fragments of ancient architecture, marbles, coins, and ceramics. Ancient Rome is being restored. The beauty of the suffering Laocoon, the beautiful Apollo (Belvedere) and Venus (Medicine) appears before the astonished Europe.

Sculpture

In the 15th century Italian sculpture was flourishing. It acquired an independent meaning, independent of architecture, and new genres appeared in it. The practice of artistic life began to include orders from wealthy merchant and craft circles for the decoration of public buildings; art competitions acquired the character of broad public events. The event that opens a new period in the development of Italian Renaissance sculpture is considered to be the competition that took place in 1401 to make the second northern doors of the Florentine Baptistery in bronze. Among the participants in the competition were young masters - Filippo Brunelleschi and Lorenzo Ghiberti (circa 1381-1455). The brilliant draftsman Ghiberti won the competition. One of the most educated people of his time, the first historian of Italian art, Ghiberti, in whose work the main thing was the balance and harmony of all elements of the image, devoted his life to one type of sculpture - relief. His quest reached its peak in the manufacture of the eastern doors of the Florentine Baptistery (1425-1452), which Michelangelo called the “Gates of Paradise.” The ten square compositions made of gilded bronze that make up them convey the depth of space in which figures, nature, and architecture merge. They resemble paintings in their expressiveness. Ghiberti's workshop became a real school for a whole generation of artists. Young Donatello, the future great reformer of Italian sculpture, worked in his workshop as an assistant. Donato di Niccolo di Betto Bardi, called Donatello (c. 1386-1466), was born in Florence into the family of a wool carder. He worked in Florence, Siena, Rome, Padua. However, enormous fame did not change his simple lifestyle. It was said that the selfless Donatello hung a wallet with money at the door of his workshop, and his friends and students took from the wallet as much as they needed.

On the one hand, Donatello longed for truth in life in art. On the other hand, he gave his works features of sublime heroism. These qualities were already evident in the master’s early works - statues of saints intended for the external niches of the facades of the Church of Or San Michele in Florence, and the Old Testament prophets of the Florentine campanile. The statues were in niches, but they immediately attracted attention with the harsh expressiveness and inner strength of the images. Especially famous is “Saint George” (1416) - a young warrior with a shield in his hand. He has a concentrated, deep gaze; he stands firmly on the ground, legs spread wide. In the statues of the prophets, Donatello especially emphasized their characteristic features, sometimes rough, unadorned, even ugly, but alive and natural. Donatello's prophets Jeremiah and Habakkuk are integral and spiritually rich natures. Their strong figures are hidden by the heavy folds of their cloaks. Life furrowed Avvakum’s faded face with deep wrinkles; he became completely bald, for which reason in Florence they nicknamed him Zuccone (Pumpkin). In 1430 Donatello created "David" - the first nude statue in Italian Renaissance sculpture. The statue was intended for a fountain in the courtyard of the Palazzo Medici. The biblical shepherd, the winner of the giant Goliath, is one of the favorite images of the Renaissance. In depicting his youthful body, Donatello undoubtedly proceeded from ancient models, but reworked them in the spirit of his time. Thoughtful and calm, David, wearing a shepherd’s hat shading his face, tramples Goliath’s head with his foot and seems not yet aware of the feat he has accomplished. A trip to Rome with Brunelleschi greatly expanded Donatello’s artistic capabilities; his work was enriched with new images and techniques, which were influenced by antiquity. A new period has begun in the master’s work. In 1433 he completed the marble pulpit of the Florence Cathedral. The entire field of the pulpit is occupied by a jubilant round dance of dancing putti - something like ancient cupids and at the same time medieval angels in the form of naked boys, sometimes winged, depicted in motion. This is a favorite motif in the sculpture of the Italian Renaissance, which then spread to art XVII-XVIII centuries For almost ten years Donatello worked in Padua, the old university city, one of the centers of humanistic culture, the birthplace of St. Anthony of Padua, deeply revered in the Catholic Church. For the city cathedral dedicated to St. Anthony, Donatello completed it in 1446-1450. a huge sculpted altar with many statues and reliefs. The central place under the canopy was occupied by a statue of the Madonna and Child, but on both sides there were six statues of saints. At the end of the 16th century. the altar was dismantled. Only part of it has survived to this day, and now it is difficult to imagine what it looked like originally. The four altar reliefs that have come down to us, depicting the miraculous deeds of St. Anthony, allow us to appreciate the unusual techniques used by the master. This is a type of flat, seemingly flattened relief. Crowded scenes are presented in a single movement in a real life setting. The backdrop is huge city buildings and arcades. Thanks to the transfer of perspective, the impression of depth of space appears, as in paintings. At the same time, Donatello performed in Padua equestrian statue condottiere Erasmo de Narni, a native of Padua, who was in the service of the Venetian Republic. The Italians nicknamed him Gattamelata (Sly Cat). This is one of the first Renaissance equestrian monuments. Calm dignity is poured throughout the appearance of Gattamelata, dressed in Roman armor, with his head naked in the Roman style, which is a magnificent example of portrait art. The almost eight-meter statue on a high pedestal is equally expressive from all sides. The monument is placed parallel to the facade of the Cathedral of Sant'Antonio, which allows it to be seen either against the background of the blue sky, or in spectacular juxtaposition with the powerful forms of the domes.

In his last years in Florence, Donatello experienced a mental crisis, his images became more and more dramatic. He created the complex and expressive group “Judith and Holofernes” (1456-1457); the statue of “Mary Magdalene” (1454-1455) in the form of a decrepit old woman, an emaciated hermit in animal skin - tragic reliefs for the Church of San Lorenzo, completed by his students. Among the largest sculptors of the first half of the 15th century. one cannot ignore Jacopo della Quercia (1374-1438), an older contemporary of Ghiberti and Donatello. His work, rich in many discoveries, stood as if apart from the general path along which the art of the Renaissance developed. A native of Siena, Quercia worked in Lucca. There, in the city cathedral, there is a rare beautiful tombstone of the young Ilaria del Careto, made by this master. In 1408 - 1419 Quercia created sculptures for the monumental fountain Fonte Gaia in Piazza Campo in Siena. Then the master lived in Bologna, where his main work was the reliefs for the portal of the Church of San Petronio (1425-1438). Made from dark gray hard local stone, they are distinguished by a powerful monumentality, anticipating the images of Michelangelo. The second generation of Florentine sculptors gravitated towards a more lyrical, peaceful, secular art. The leading role in it belonged to the della Robbia family of sculptors. The head of the family, Lucca della Robbia (1399 or 1400-1482), a contemporary of Brunelleschi and Donatello, became famous for his use of glaze techniques in circular sculpture and relief, often combining them with architecture. The technique of glaze (majolica), known since ancient times to the peoples of Western Asia, was brought to the Iberian Peninsula and the island of Majorca in the Middle Ages, which is why it got its name, and then spread widely in Italy. Lucca della Robbia created medallions with reliefs on a deep blue background for buildings and altars, garlands of flowers and fruits, majolica busts of the Madonna, Christ, and John the Baptist. The cheerful, elegant, kind art of this master received well-deserved recognition from his contemporaries. His nephew Andrea della Robbia (1435-1525) also achieved great perfection in the majolica technique.

Painting

The huge role that Brunelleschi played in the architecture of the early Renaissance, and Donatello in sculpture, belonged to Masaccio in painting. Brunelleschi and Donatello were at their creative peak when Masaccio was born. According to Vasari, “Masaccio sought to depict figures with great liveliness and the greatest spontaneity, like reality.” Masaccio died young, not reaching the age of 27, and yet managed to do so many new things in painting that no other master could manage in his entire life. Tommaso di Giovanni di Simone Cassai, nicknamed Masaccio (1401 - 1428), was born in the town of San Valdarno near Florence, where he went as a young man to study painting. There was an assumption that his teacher was Masolino de Panicale, with whom he then collaborated; it has now been rejected by researchers. Masaccio worked in Florence, Pisa and Rome. Classic example The altar composition was his “Trinity” (1427-1428), created for the church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence. The fresco was painted on a wall going deep into the chapel, which was built in the shape of a Renaissance arched niche. The painting shows a crucifix, the figures of Mary and John the Baptist. The image of God the Father overshadows them. In the foreground of the fresco, kneeling customers are depicted, as if they were in the church building itself. Located at the bottom of the fresco is an image of a sarcophagus on which a skeleton lies Adam. The inscription above the sarcophagus contains the traditional medieval saying: “I was once like you, and you will be like me.” Until the 50s. XX century this work of Masaccio in the eyes of art lovers and scientists receded into the background in front of his famous cycle of paintings of the Brancacci Chapel. After the fresco was moved to its original place in the temple in 1952, washed, restored, and when its lower part with a sarcophagus was discovered, the “Trinity” attracted the close attention of researchers and art lovers. Masaccio's creation is remarkable in every way. The majestic detachment of the images is combined here with a hitherto unseen reality of space and architecture, with the volume of the figures, the expressive portrait characteristics of the faces of the customers and with the image of the Mother of God, amazing in its power of restrained feeling. In the same years, Masaccio (in collaboration with Masolino) created the Brancacci Chapel murals in the church of Santa Maria del Carmine, named after a wealthy Florentine customer. The painter was faced with the task of constructing a space using linear and aerial perspective, placing powerful figures of characters in it, truthfully depicting their movements, poses, gestures, and then connecting the scale and color of the figures with the natural or architectural background. Masaccio not only successfully coped with this task, but also managed to convey the internal tension and psychological depth of the images. The subjects of the paintings are mainly devoted to the history of the Apostle Peter. The most famous composition, “The Miracle of the Stater,” tells how a tax collector stopped Christ and his disciples at the gates of the city of Capernaum, demanding money from them to maintain the temple. Christ commanded the Apostle Peter to catch fish in Lake Gennesaret and extract a statir from it. On the left in the background the viewer sees this scene. On the right, Peter hands the money to the collector. Thus, the composition connects three episodes at different times, in which the apostle appears three times. In the essentially innovative painting of Masaccio, this technique is a belated tribute to the medieval tradition of pictorial storytelling; many masters had already abandoned it at that time and more than a century ago Giotto himself. But this does not disturb the impression of bold novelty, which distinguishes the entire figurative structure of the painting, its dramaturgy, vitally convincing, slightly rude heroes. Sometimes in expressing the strength and acuity of feeling, Masaccio is ahead of his time. Here is the fresco “The Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise” in the same Brancacci Chapel. The viewer believes that Adam and Eve, who violated the Divine prohibition, are actually expelled from paradise by an angel with a sword in their hands. The main thing here is not the biblical plot and external details, but the feeling of boundless human despair that engulfs Adam, covering his face with his hands, and sobbing Eve, with sunken eyes and a dark hole in her mouth distorted by a scream. In August 1428, Masaccio left for Rome without finishing the painting, and soon died suddenly. The Brancacci Chapel became a place of pilgrimage for painters who adopted Masaccio's techniques. However, a lot of it is creative; Masaccio's legacy was only appreciated by subsequent generations. In the work of his contemporary Paolo Uccello (1397-1475), who belonged to the generation of masters who worked after Masaccio’s death, the craving for elegant fairy tales sometimes acquired a naive shade. This feature of the artist’s creative style has become his unique calling card. His early small painting “St. George” is charming. A green dragon with a screw-shaped tail and patterned wings, as if carved from tin, walks decisively on two legs. He's not scary, but funny. The artist himself probably smiled while creating this picture. But in Uccello’s work, wayward fantasy was combined with a passion for studying perspective. Vasari described the experiments, drawings, and sketches to which he devoted sleepless nights as eccentricities. Meanwhile, Paolo Uccello entered the history of painting as one of those painters who first began to use the technique of linear perspective in his canvases. In his youth, Uccello worked in Ghiberti's workshop, then made mosaics for the Cathedral of San Marco in Venice, and upon returning to Florence, he became acquainted with Masaccio's paintings in the Brancacci Chapel, which had a huge influence on him. His fascination with perspective was reflected in Uccello’s first work, a portrait he painted in 1436 of the English condottiere John Hawkwood, known to Italians as Giovanni Acuto. The huge monochrome (one-color) fresco depicts not a living person, but an equestrian statue of him, which the viewer looks at from the bottom up. Uccello's bold quests found expression in three of his famous paintings, commissioned by Cosimo de' Medici and dedicated to the battle of two Florentine commanders with the troops of Siena at San Romano. In Uccello’s amazing paintings, against the backdrop of a toy landscape, horsemen and warriors clashed in a fierce battle, spears, shields, and banner poles were mixed up. And yet, the battle looks conventional, frozen in an extremely beautiful, glittering gold decoration with figures of horses in red, pink and even blue.

Characteristic features in the art of the Renaissance

Perspective. To add three-dimensional depth and space to their work, Renaissance artists borrowed and greatly expanded the concepts of linear perspective, horizon line, and vanishing point.

§ Linear perspective. Linear perspective painting is like looking out the window and painting exactly what you see. window glass. Objects in the picture began to have their own sizes depending on their distance. Those that were further from the viewer became smaller, and vice versa.

§ Skyline. This is a line at a distance at which objects are reduced to a point as thick as that line.

§ Vanishing point. This is the point at which parallel lines seem to converge far away in the distance, often on the horizon line. This effect can be observed if you stand on the railway tracks and look at the rails going into the distance. l.

Shadows and light. Artists played with interest on how light falls on objects and creates shadows. Shadows and light could be used to draw attention to a specific point in a painting.

Emotions. Renaissance artists wanted the viewer, looking at the work, to feel something, to experience an emotional experience. It was a form of visual rhetoric where the viewer felt inspired to become better at something.

Realism and naturalism. In addition to perspective, artists sought to make objects, especially people, appear more realistic. They studied human anatomy, measured proportions and searched for the ideal human form. The people looked real and showed genuine emotions, allowing the viewer to make inferences about what the people depicted were thinking and feeling.

The Renaissance is divided into 4 stages:

Proto-Renaissance (2nd half of the 13th century - 14th century)

Early Renaissance (beginning of the 15th - end of the 15th century)

High Renaissance (late 15th - first 20 years of the 16th century)

Late Renaissance (mid-16th - 1590s)

Proto-Renaissance

The Proto-Renaissance is closely connected with the Middle Ages; in fact, it appeared in the Late Middle Ages, with Byzantine, Romanesque and Gothic traditions, this period was the forerunner of the Renaissance. It is divided into two sub-periods: before the death of Giotto di Bondone and after (1337). Italian artist and architect, founder of the Proto-Renaissance. One of the key figures in history Western art. Overcoming the Byzantine iconographic tradition, became the true founder of the Italian school of painting, developed a completely new approach to depicting space. Giotto's works were inspired by Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo. Central figure Giotto became a painter. Renaissance artists considered him a reformer of painting. Giotto outlined the path along which its development took place: filling religious forms with secular content, a gradual transition from flat images to three-dimensional and relief ones, an increase in realism, introduced the plastic volume of figures into painting, and depicted the interior in painting.

At the end of the 13th century, the main temple building was erected in Florence - the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, the author was Arnolfo di Cambio, then the work was continued by Giotto.

The most important discoveries, the brightest masters live and work in the first period. The second segment is associated with the plague epidemic that struck Italy.

The earliest art of the proto-Renaissance appeared in sculpture (Niccolò and Giovanni Pisano, Arnolfo di Cambio, Andrea Pisano). The painting is represented by two art schools: Florence and Siena.

Early Renaissance

The period of the so-called “Early Renaissance” covers the period from 1420 to 1500 in Italy. During these eighty years, art has not yet completely abandoned the traditions of the recent past (the Middle Ages), but has tried to mix into them elements borrowed from classical antiquity. Only later, under the influence of increasingly changing conditions of life and culture, do artists completely abandon medieval foundations and boldly use examples of ancient art, both in the general concept of their works and in their details.

While art in Italy was already resolutely following the path of imitation of classical antiquity, in other countries it long adhered to the traditions of the Gothic style. North of the Alps, and also in Spain, the Renaissance does not begin until the end of the 15th century, and its early period lasts until about the middle of the next century.

Early Renaissance Artists

Masaccio (Masaccio Tommaso Di Giovanni Di Simone Cassai), the famous Italian painter, the greatest master of the Florentine school, a reformer of painting of the Quattrocento era, is rightfully considered one of the first and most brilliant representatives of this period.

With his work, he contributed to the transition from Gothic to new art, glorifying the greatness of man and his world. Masaccio's contribution to art was renewed in 1988, when his main creation - frescoes of the Brancacci Chapel in the Church of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence- were restored to their original form.

- Resurrection of the son of Theophilus, Masaccio and Filippino Lippi

- Adoration of the Magi

- Miracle with statir

Other important representatives of this period were Sandro Botticelli. great Italian painter of the Renaissance, representative of the Florentine school of painting.

- Birth of Venus

- Venus and Mars

- Spring

- Adoration of the Magi

High Renaissance

The third period of the Renaissance - the time of the most magnificent development of his style - is usually called the “High Renaissance”. It extends in Italy from approximately 1500 to 1527. At this time, the center of influence of Italian art moved from Florence to Rome, thanks to the accession to the papal throne of Julius II, an ambitious, courageous, enterprising man who attracted him to his court best artists Italy, who occupied them with numerous and important works and gave others an example of love for art. Under this Pope and under his immediate successors, Rome becomes, as it were, the new Athens of the time of Pericles: many monumental buildings are built in it, magnificent sculptural works, frescoes and paintings are painted, which are still considered the pearls of painting; at the same time, all three branches of art harmoniously go hand in hand, helping one another and mutually influencing each other. Antiquity is now studied more thoroughly, reproduced with greater rigor and consistency; calm and dignity replace the playful beauty that was the aspiration of the previous period; memories of the medieval completely disappear, and a completely classical imprint falls on all creations of art. But imitation of the ancients does not drown out their independence in artists, and with great resourcefulness and vivid imagination they freely rework and apply to their work what they consider appropriate to borrow for themselves from ancient Greco-Roman art.

The work of three great Italian masters marks the pinnacle of the Renaissance, this is Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) Leonardo di Ser Piero da Vinci great Italian painter of the Renaissance, representative of the Florentine school of painting. Italian artist (painter, sculptor, architect) and scientist (anatomist, naturalist), inventor, writer, musician, one of the largest representatives of the art of the High Renaissance, a shining example of the “universal man”

Last Supper,

Mona Lisa,

-Vitruvian Man ,

- Madonna Litta

- Madonna of the Rocks

-Madonna with a spindle

Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) Michelangelo di Lodovico di Leonardo di Buonarroti Simoni. Italian sculptor, artist, architect [⇨], poet [⇨], thinker [⇨]. . One of greatest masters Renaissance [ ⇨ ] and early Baroque. His works were considered the highest achievements of Renaissance art during the lifetime of the master himself. Michelangelo lived for almost 89 years, an entire era, from the period of the High Renaissance to the origins of the Counter-Reformation. During this period, there were thirteen Popes - he carried out orders for nine of them.

Creation of Adam

Last Judgment

and Raphael Santi (1483-1520). great Italian painter, graphic artist and architect, representative of the Umbrian school.

- Athens School

-Sistine Madonna

- Transfiguration

- Wonderful gardener

Late Renaissance

The late Renaissance in Italy spans the period from the 1530s to the 1590s to the 1620s. The Counter-Reformation triumphed in Southern Europe ( Counter-Reformation(lat. Contrareformatio; from contra- against and reformatio- transformation, reformation) - a Catholic church-political movement in Europe in the mid-16th-17th centuries, directed against the Reformation and aimed at restoring the position and prestige of the Roman Catholic Church.), which looked warily at any free-thinking, including the glorification of the human body and resurrection of the ideals of antiquity as the cornerstones of Renaissance ideology. Worldview contradictions and a general feeling of crisis resulted in Florence in the “nervous” art of contrived colors and broken lines - mannerism. Mannerism reached Parma, where Correggio worked, only after the artist’s death in 1534. U artistic traditions Venice had its own logic of development; Palladio (real name) worked there until the end of the 1570s Andrea di Pietro). great Italian architect late Renaissance and mannerism.( Mannerism(from Italian maniera, manner) - Western European literary and artistic style of the 16th - first third of the 17th century. Characterized by the loss of Renaissance harmony between the physical and spiritual, nature and man.) Founder of Palladianism ( Palladianism or Palladium architecture- an early form of classicism that grew out of the ideas of the Italian architect Andrea Palladio (1508-1580). The style is based on strict adherence to symmetry, consideration of perspective and borrowing the principles of classical temple architecture of Ancient Greece and Rome.) and classicism. Probably the most influential architect in history.

First independent work Andrea Palladio, as a talented designer and gifted architect, is the Basilica in Vicenza, in which his original, inimitable talent was revealed.

Among the country houses, the most outstanding creation of the master is the Villa Rotunda. Andrea Palladio built it in Vicenza for a retired Vatican official. It is notable for being the first secular-domestic building of the Renaissance, erected in the form of an ancient temple.

Another example is the Palazzo Chiericati, the unusualness of which is manifested in the fact that the first floor of the building was almost entirely given over to public use, which was in accordance with the requirements of the city authorities of those times.

Among the famous urban buildings of Palladio, it is necessary to mention the Teatro Olimpico, designed in the style of an amphitheater.

Titian ( Titian Vecellio) Italian painter, the largest representative Venetian school the era of the High and Late Renaissance. Titian's name ranks with such Renaissance artists as Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael. Titian painted paintings on biblical and mythological subjects; he also became famous as a portrait painter. He received orders from kings and popes, cardinals, dukes and princes. Titian was not even thirty years old when he was recognized as the best painter of Venice.

From his place of birth (Pieve di Cadore in the province of Belluno, Republic of Venice) he is sometimes called yes Cadore; also known as Titian the Divine.

- Ascension of the Virgin Mary

- Bacchus and Ariadne

- Diana and Actaeon

- Venus Urbino

- The Kidnapping of Europa

whose work had little in common with the crisis in the art of Florence and Rome.

The painting of the early Renaissance goes through the same evolution as sculpture. Overcoming the Gothic abstraction of images, developing the best features of Giotto's painting, artists of the 15th century embarked on the broad path of realism. Monumental fresco painting is experiencing an unprecedented flourishing.

Masaccio. Expulsion from Paradise, 1426–1427
Church of Santa Maria del Carmine
Brancacci Chapel, Florence

Uccello. Portrait of a Lady, 1450
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Castaño. Portrait of a Seigneur, 1446
National Gallery, Washington

Masaccio. A reformer of painting, who played the same role as in the development of Brunelleschi's architecture and Donatello in sculpture, was the Florentine Masaccio (1401–1428), who lived short life and left wonderful works in which the search for a generalized heroic image of man, a truthful representation of the world around him, was continued. These quests were most clearly manifested in the frescoes of the Brancacci Chapel at the Church of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence, “The Miracle of the Stater” and “The Expulsion from Paradise” (both between 1427–1428).

Masaccio breaks with the decorativeness and petty narrative that dominated painting in the second half of the 14th century. Following the tradition of Giotto, the artist Masaccio focuses on the image of a person, enhancing his harsh energy and activity, civic humanism. Masaccio takes a decisive step in combining figure and landscape, introducing for the first time aerial perspective. In Masaccio's frescoes, the shallow platform - the scene of action in Giotto's paintings - is replaced by an image of real deep space; The plastic light and shadow modeling of figures becomes more convincing and richer, their construction is stronger, and their characteristics are more varied. And besides, Masaccio retains the enormous moral power of images, which captivates Giotto in the art.

Angelico. Madonna Fiesole, 1430
Monastery of San Domenico, Fiesole

Lippi. Woman and man, 1460s
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Domenico. Madonna and Child
1437, Berenson Gallery, Florence

The most significant of Masaccio’s frescoes is “The Miracle of the Statir,” a multi-figure composition that, according to tradition, includes various episodes of the legend about how, upon entering the city, Christ and his disciples were asked for a fee - a statir (coin); how, by order of Christ, Peter caught a fish in the lake and found a statir in its mouth, which he handed over to the guard. Both of these additional episodes - fishing and presenting the statir - do not distract attention from center stage- a group of apostles entering the city. Their figures are majestic, massive, courageous faces bear the individualized features of people from the people; in the man on the far right, some researchers see a portrait of Masaccio himself. The significance of what is happening is emphasized by the general state of restrained excitement. The naturalness of gestures and movements, the introduction of a genre motif in the scene of Peter’s search for the coin, and the carefully painted landscape give the painting a secular, deeply truthful character.

No less realistic is the interpretation of the “Expulsion from Paradise” scene, where, for the first time in Renaissance painting, nude figures are depicted, powerfully modeled by side light. Their movements and facial expressions express confusion, shame, and remorse. The great authenticity and persuasiveness of Masaccio’s images impart special strength to the humanistic idea of ​​the dignity and significance of the human personality. With his innovative quests, the artist opened up ways for the further development of realistic painting.

Uccello. An experimenter in the study and use of perspective was Paolo Uccello (1397–1475), the first Italian battle painter. Uccello varied compositions with episodes from the Battle of San Romano three times (mid-1450s, London, National Gallery; Florence, Uffizi; Paris, Louvre), enthusiastically depicting multi-colored horses and riders in a wide variety of perspective cuts and spreads.

Castaño. Among the followers of Masaccio, Andrea del Castagno (about 1421 - 1457) stood out, who showed interest not only in the plastic form and perspective structures characteristic of Florentine painting of that time, but also in the problem of color. The best of the created images of this rough, courageous, uneven by nature artist are distinguished by heroic strength and irrepressible energy. These are the heroes of the paintings of the Villa Pandolfini (circa 1450, Florence, Church of Santa Apollonia) - an example of a solution to a secular theme. The figures of prominent figures of the Renaissance stand out against the green and dark red backgrounds, among them the condottieri of Florence: Farinata degli Uberti and Pippo Spano. The latter stands firmly on the ground, legs spread wide, clad in armor, with his head uncovered, with a drawn sword in his hands; he is a living person, full of frantic energy and confidence in his abilities. Powerful black and white modeling gives the image plastic strength, expressiveness, emphasizes the sharpness of individual characteristics, bright portraiture, not previously seen in Italian painting.

Among the frescoes of the church of Santa Apollonia, the “Last Supper” (1445–1450) stands out for the scope of its image and the sharpness of its characteristics. This religious scene - Christ's meal surrounded by disciples - was painted by many artists, who always followed a certain type of composition. Castagno did not deviate from this type of construction. On one side of the table located along the wall, the artist placed the apostles. Among them, in the center is Christ. On the other side of the table is the lonely figure of the traitor Judas. Yet Castaño achieves great impact and innovative sound in his composition; This is facilitated by the vivid character of the images, the nationality of the types of the apostles and Christ, the deep dramatic expression of feelings, and the emphatically rich and contrasting color scheme.

Angelico. Exquisite beauty and purity of delicate shining color harmonies, which acquire a special decorative quality in combination with gold, captivates the art of Fra Beato Angelico (1387–1455), full of poetry and fabulousness. Mystical in spirit, associated with naive world religious ideas, it is covered in poetry folk tale. The soulful images of the “Coronation of Mary” (circa 1435, Paris, Louvre), frescoes of the Monastery of San Marco in Florence, created by this unique artist - a Dominican monk, are enlightened.

Domenico Veneziano. Problems of color also attracted Domenico Veneziano (c. 1410 – 1461), a native of Venice who worked mainly in Florence. His religious compositions ("Adoration of the Magi", 1430–1440, Berlin-Dahlem, Picture gallery), naive-fairy-tale interpretation of the theme, still bear the imprint of the Gothic tradition. Renaissance features appeared more clearly in the portraits he created. In the 15th century, the portrait genre conquered independent meaning. The profile composition, inspired by ancient medals and making it possible to generalize and glorify the image of the person being portrayed, has become widespread. A precise line outlines a sharp profile in “ Portrait of a woman"(mid-15th century, Berlin-Dahlem, Picture Gallery). The artist achieves a living direct similarity and at the same time a subtle coloristic unity in the harmony of light shining colors, transparent, airy, softening the contours. The painter was the first to introduce Florentine masters to the technique of oil painting. By introducing varnishes and oils, Domenico Veneziano enhanced the purity and richness of color of his canvases.

Details Category: Fine arts and architecture of the Renaissance (Renaissance) Published 12/19/2016 16:20 Views: 9453

The Renaissance is a time of cultural flourishing, the heyday of all arts, but the one that most fully expressed the spirit of its time was fine art.

Renaissance, or Renaissance(fr. “new” + “born”) had global significance in the history of European culture. The Renaissance replaced the Middle Ages and preceded the Age of Enlightenment.
Main features of the Renaissance– the secular nature of culture, humanism and anthropocentrism (interest in man and his activities). During the Renaissance, interest in ancient culture and it is as if its “rebirth” is taking place.
The Renaissance arose in Italy - its first signs appeared in the 13th-14th centuries. (Tony Paramoni, Pisano, Giotto, Orcagna, etc.). But it was firmly established in the 20s of the 15th century, and by the end of the 15th century. reached its peak.
In other countries, the Renaissance began much later. In the 16th century a crisis of Renaissance ideas begins, a consequence of this crisis is the emergence of mannerism and baroque.

Renaissance periods

The Renaissance is divided into 4 periods:

1. Proto-Renaissance (2nd half of the 13th century - 14th century)
2. Early Renaissance (beginning of the 15th - end of the 15th century)
3. High Renaissance (end of the 15th - first 20 years of the 16th century)
4. Late Renaissance (mid-16th-90s of the 16th century)

The fall played a role in the formation of the Renaissance Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines who moved to Europe brought with them their libraries and works of art, unknown to medieval Europe. Byzantium never broke with ancient culture.
Appearance humanism(a socio-philosophical movement that considered man as the highest value) was associated with the absence of feudal relations in the Italian city-republics.
Secular centers of science and art began to emerge in cities, which were not controlled by the church. whose activities were outside the control of the church. In the middle of the 15th century. Printing was invented, which played an important role in the spread of new views throughout Europe.

Brief characteristics of the Renaissance periods

Proto-Renaissance

The Proto-Renaissance is the forerunner of the Renaissance. It is also closely connected with the Middle Ages, with Byzantine, Romanesque and Gothic traditions. He is associated with the names of Giotto, Arnolfo di Cambio, the Pisano brothers, Andrea Pisano.

Andrea Pisano. Bas-relief "Creation of Adam". Opera del Duomo (Florence)

Proto-Renaissance painting is represented by two art schools: Florence (Cimabue, Giotto) and Siena (Duccio, Simone Martini). The central figure of painting was Giotto. He was considered a reformer of painting: he filled religious forms with secular content, made a gradual transition from flat images to three-dimensional and relief ones, turned to realism, introduced plastic volume of figures into painting, and depicted interiors in painting.

Early Renaissance

This is the period from 1420 to 1500. Artists of the Early Renaissance of Italy drew motifs from life and filled traditional religious subjects with earthly content. In sculpture these were L. Ghiberti, Donatello, Jacopo della Quercia, the della Robbia family, A. Rossellino, Desiderio da Settignano, B. da Maiano, A. Verrocchio. In their work, a free-standing statue, a picturesque relief, a portrait bust, and an equestrian monument began to develop.
In Italian painting of the 15th century. (Masaccio, Filippo Lippi, A. del Castagno, P. Uccello, Fra Angelico, D. Ghirlandaio, A. Pollaiolo, Verrocchio, Piero della Francesca, A. Mantegna, P. Perugino, etc.) are characterized by a sense of harmonious order of the world, appeal to the ethical and civic ideals of humanism, a joyful perception of the beauty and diversity of the real world.
The founder of Renaissance architecture in Italy was Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446), an architect, sculptor and scientist, one of the creators of the scientific theory of perspective.

A special place in the history of Italian architecture occupies Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472). This Italian scientist, architect, writer and musician of the Early Renaissance was educated in Padua, studied law in Bologna, and later lived in Florence and Rome. He created theoretical treatises “On the Statue” (1435), “On Painting” (1435–1436), “On Architecture” (published in 1485). He defended the “folk” (Italian) language as a literary language, and in his ethical treatise “On the Family” (1737-1441) he developed the ideal of a harmoniously developed personality. In his architectural work, Alberti gravitated towards bold experimental solutions. He was one of the founders of new European architecture.

Palazzo Rucellai

Leon Battista Alberti designed new type a palazzo with a facade, rusticated to its entire height and dissected by three tiers of pilasters, which look like the structural basis of the building (Palazzo Rucellai in Florence, built by B. Rossellino according to Alberti’s plans).
Opposite the Palazzo stands the Loggia Rucellai, where receptions and banquets were held for trading partners, weddings were celebrated.

Loggia Rucellai

High Renaissance

This is the time of the most magnificent development of the Renaissance style. In Italy it lasted from approximately 1500 to 1527. Now the center of Italian art from Florence moves to Rome, thanks to the accession to the papal throne Julia II, an ambitious, courageous, enterprising man, who attracted the best artists of Italy to his court.

Rafael Santi "Portrait of Pope Julius II"

In Rome, many monumental buildings are built, magnificent sculptures are created, frescoes and paintings are painted, which are still considered masterpieces of painting. Antiquity is still highly valued and carefully studied. But imitation of the ancients does not drown out the independence of artists.
The pinnacle of the Renaissance is the work of Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) and Raphael Santi (1483-1520).

Late Renaissance

In Italy this is the period from the 1530s to the 1590s-1620s. The art and culture of this time are very diverse. Some believe (for example, British scientists) that “The Renaissance as a holistic historical period ended with the fall of Rome in 1527." The art of the late Renaissance presents a very complex picture of the struggle between various movements. Many artists did not strive to study nature and its laws, but only outwardly tried to assimilate the “manner” of the great masters: Leonardo, Raphael and Michelangelo. On this occasion, the elderly Michelangelo once said, watching artists copy his “Last Judgment”: “This art of mine will make fools of many.”
In Southern Europe, the Counter-Reformation triumphed, which did not welcome any free thought, including the glorification of the human body and the resurrection of the ideals of antiquity.
Famous artists of this period were Giorgione (1477/1478-1510), Paolo Veronese (1528-1588), Caravaggio (1571-1610) and others. Caravaggio considered the founder of the Baroque style.

Federal agency by education

St. Petersburg State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering

Department of History

Discipline: Cultural Studies

Titans and masterpieces of Renaissance culture

Student group 1 ES 2

E. Yu. Nalivko

Supervisor:

k.i. Sc., teacher

I. Yu. Lapina

Saint Petersburg

Introduction……………………………………………………3

Early Renaissance Art………………………..4

High Renaissance period…………………………….5

Sandro Botticelli……………………………………….5

Leonardo Da Vinci……………………………………7

Michelangelo Buonarroti …….………………………10

Raffaello Santi…………....…………………………….13

Conclusion……………………………………………………………..15

List of used literature………………………....16

Introduction

The Renaissance is an important period in world culture. Initially, a new phenomenon in European cultural life looked like a return to the forgotten achievements of ancient culture in the field of science, philosophy, and literature. The phenomenon of the Renaissance lies in the fact that the ancient heritage turned into a weapon for overthrowing church canons and prohibitions. Essentially, we must talk about a grandiose cultural revolution, which lasted two and a half centuries and ended with the creation of a new type of worldview and a new type of culture. Nothing like this was observed outside the European region at that time. That's why this topic aroused my great interest and desire to examine this period in more detail.

In my essay I want to focus on such outstanding people as Sandro Botticelli, Leonardo Da Vinci, Michelangelo Buonarroti, Raffaello Santi. They became the most prominent representatives of the main stages of the Italian Renaissance.

1. Early Renaissance Art

In the first decades of the 15th century, a decisive turning point occurred in the art of Italy. The emergence of a powerful center of the Renaissance in Florence entailed a renewal of the entire Italian artistic culture.

The work of Donatello, Masaccio and their associates marks the victory of Renaissance realism, which differed significantly from the “realism of detail” that was characteristic of the Gothic art of the late Trecento. The works of these masters are imbued with the ideals of humanism. They heroize and exalt a person, raising him above the level of everyday life.

In their struggle with the Gothic tradition, artists of the early Renaissance sought support in antiquity and the art of the Proto-Renaissance. What the masters of the Proto-Renaissance sought only intuitively, by touch, is now based on precise knowledge.

Italian art of the 15th century is distinguished by great diversity. The new art, which triumphed in advanced Florence at the beginning of the 15th century, did not immediately gain recognition and spread in other regions of the country. While Bruneleschi, Masaccio, and Donatello worked in Florence, the traditions of Byzantine and Gothic art were still alive in northern Italy, only gradually supplanted by the Renaissance.

The main center of the early Renaissance was Florence. Florentine culture of the first half and mid-15th century is diverse and rich. Since 1439, since the ecumenical church council held in Florence, to which the Byzantine Emperor John Palaiologos and the Patriarch of Constantinople arrived, accompanied by a magnificent retinue, and especially after the fall of Byzantium in 1453, when many scientists who fled from the East found refuge in Florence, this city becomes one of the main centers in Italy for the study of the Greek language, as well as the literature and philosophy of Ancient Greece. And yet, the leading role in the cultural life of Florence in the first half and middle of the 15th century undoubtedly belonged to art. 1

2. High Renaissance period

This period of time represents the apogee of the Renaissance. It was a short period that lasted about 30 years, but in terms of quantity and quality, this period of time was like centuries. The art of the High Renaissance is a summation of the achievements of the 15th century, but at the same time it is a new qualitative leap, both in the theory of art and in its implementation. The extraordinary “density” of this period can be explained by the fact that the number of brilliant artists working simultaneously (in one historical period) is a kind of record even for the entire history of art. It is enough to name such names as Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael and Michelangelo.

3. Sandro Botticelli

The name of Sandro Botticelli is known throughout the world as one of the most remarkable artists of the Italian Renaissance.

Sandro Botticelli was born in 1444 (or 1445) in the family of a tanner, Florentine citizen Mariano Filippepi. Sandro was the youngest, fourth son of Filippepi. Unfortunately, almost nothing is known about where and when Sandro underwent artistic training and whether, as old sources report, he really first studied jewelry and then began to paint. In 1470, he already had his own workshop and independently carried out orders received.

The charm of Botticelli's art always remains a little mysterious. His works evoke a feeling that the works of other masters do not evoke.

Botticelli was inferior to many artists of the 15th century, some in courageous energy, others in the truthful accuracy of details. His images (with very rare exceptions) are devoid of monumentality and drama; their exaggeratedly fragile forms are always a little conventional. But like no other painter of the 15th century, Botticelli was endowed with the ability for the most subtle poetic understanding of life. For the first time, he was able to convey the subtle nuances of human experiences. Joyful excitement is replaced in his paintings by melancholic dreaminess, gusts of fun - by aching melancholy, calm contemplation - by uncontrollable passion.

Botticelli's new direction of art received its extreme expression in the last period of his activity, in the works of the 1490s and early 1500s. Here the techniques of exaggeration and dissonance become almost unbearable (for example, “The Miracle of St. Zenobius”). The artist either plunges into the abyss of hopeless sorrow (“Pieta”), or surrenders to enlightened exaltation (“Communion of St. Jerome”). His pictorial style is simplified almost to an iconographic convention, distinguished by some kind of naive tongue-tiedness. Both the drawing, taken in its simplicity to the limit, and the color with its sharp contrasts of local colors are completely subordinate to the planar linear rhythm. The images seem to lose their reality, the earth's shell, acting as mystical symbols. And yet, in this thoroughly religious art, the human element makes its way with tremendous force. Never before has an artist put so much personal feeling into his works; never before have his images had such a high moral meaning.

With the death of Botticelli, the history of Florentine painting of the Early Renaissance ends - this true spring of Italian artistic culture. Contemporary of Leonardo, Michelangelo and young Raphael, Botticelli remained alien to their classical ideals. As an artist, he belonged entirely to the 15th century and had no direct successors in High Renaissance painting. However, his art did not die with him. It was the first attempt to reveal the spiritual world of man, a timid attempt that ended tragically, but which, through generations and centuries, received its infinitely multifaceted reflection in the work of other masters.

Botticelli's art is the poetic confession of a great artist, which excites and will always excite the hearts of people. 2

4. Leonardo Da Vinci

In the history of mankind it is not easy to find another person as brilliant as the founder of High Renaissance art, Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519). The comprehensive nature of the activities of this great artist and scientist became clear only when scattered manuscripts from his legacy were examined. A colossal amount of literature has been devoted to Leonardo, and his life has been studied in detail. And yet, much of his work remains mysterious and continues to excite people’s minds.

Leonardo Da Vinci was born in the village of Anchiano near Vinci: not far from Florence. He was illegitimate son a wealthy notary and a simple peasant woman. Noticing the boy’s extraordinary abilities in painting, his father sent him to the workshop of Andrea Verrocchio. In the teacher’s painting “The Baptism of Christ,” the figure of a spiritualized blond angel belongs to the brush of the young Leonardo.

Among his early works is the painting “Madonna with a Flower” (1472), executed in oil painting, then rare in Italy.

Around 1482, Leonardo entered the service of the Duke of Milan, Lodovico Moro. The master recommended himself first of all as a military engineer, architect, specialist in the field of hydraulic engineering, and only then as a painter and sculptor. However, the first Milanese period of Leonardo's work (1482-1499) turned out to be the most fruitful. The master became the most famous artist in Italy, studied architecture and sculpture, and turned to frescoes and altar paintings.

Leonardo's paintings from the Milanese period have survived to this day. The first altar composition of the High Renaissance was “Madonna in the Grotto” (1483-1494). The painter departed from the traditions of the fifteenth century: in whose religious paintings solemn constraint prevailed. In Leonardo's altarpiece there are few figures: a feminine Mary, the Infant Christ blessing little John the Baptist, and a kneeling angel, as if looking out from the picture. The images are ideally beautiful, naturally connected with their environment. This is something like a grotto among dark basalt rocks with a gap in the depths - a generally fantastically mysterious landscape typical of Leonardo. The figures and faces are shrouded in an airy haze, giving them a special softness. The Italians called this technique of Leonardo sfumato.

In Milan, apparently, the master created the painting “Madonna and Child” (“Madonna Lita”). Here, in contrast to “Madonna with a Flower,” he strived for greater generalization of the ideality of the image. What is depicted is not a specific moment, but a certain long-term state of calm joy in which a young beautiful woman is immersed. A cold, clear light illuminates her thin, soft face with a half-lowered gaze and a light, barely perceptible smile. The painting is painted in tempera, which adds sonority to the tones of Mary’s blue cloak and red dress. The Baby’s fluffy, dark-golden curly hair is amazingly depicted, and his attentive gaze directed at the viewer is not childishly serious.

When Milan was taken by French troops in 1499, Leonardo left the city. The time of his wandering has begun. For some time he worked in Florence. There, Leonardo’s work seemed to be illuminated by a bright flash: he painted a portrait of Mona Lisa, the wife of the wealthy Florentine Francesco di Giocondo (circa 1503). The portrait is known as “La Gioconda” and has become one of the most famous works of world painting.

A small portrait of a young woman, shrouded in an airy haze, sitting against the backdrop of a bluish-green landscape, is full of such lively and tender trepidation that, according to Vasari, you can see the pulse beating in the hollow of Mona Lisa’s neck. It would seem that the picture is easy to understand. Meanwhile, in the extensive literature dedicated to La Gioconda, the most opposing interpretations of the image created by Leonardo collide.

In the last years of his life, Leonardo da Vinci worked little as an artist. Having received an invitation from the French king Francis 1, he left for France in 1517 and became a court painter. Leonardo soon died. In a self-portrait-drawing (1510-1515), the gray-bearded patriarch with a deep, mournful look looked much older than his age.

The scale and uniqueness of Leonardo’s talent can be judged by his drawings, which occupy one of the honorable places in the history of art. Not only manuscripts devoted to the exact sciences, but also works on the theory of art are inextricably linked with Leonardo da Vinci's drawings, sketches, sketches, and diagrams. Much space is given to the problems of chiaroscuro, volumetric modeling, linear and aerial perspective. Leonardo da Vinci owns numerous discoveries, projects and experimental studies in mathematics, mechanics, and other natural sciences.

The art of Leonardo da Vinci, his scientific and theoretical research, the uniqueness of his personality have passed through the entire history of world culture and science and have had a huge influence. 3

5. Michelangelo Buonarroti

Among the demigods and titans of the High Renaissance, Michelangelo occupies a special place. As a creator of new art, he deserves the title of Prometheus of the 16th century

The beautiful marble sculpture, known as the Pietà, remains to this day a monument to the first sojourn in Rome and the full maturity of the 24- summer artist. The Holy Virgin sits on a stone, on her lap rests the lifeless body of Jesus, taken from the cross. She supports him with her hand. Under the influence of ancient works, Michelangelo discarded all the traditions of the Middle Ages in depicting religious subjects. He gave harmony and beauty to the body of Christ and the whole work. The death of Jesus should not have caused horror, only a feeling of reverent surprise for the great sufferer. The beauty of the naked body benefits greatly from the effect of light and shadow produced by the skillfully arranged folds of Mary's dress. In the face of Jesus, depicted by the artist, they even found similarities with Savonarola. The Pieta remained an eternal testament of struggle and protest, an eternal monument to the hidden suffering of the artist himself.

Michelangelo returned to Florence in 1501, at a difficult moment for the city, where from a huge block of Carrara marble, which was intended for a colossal statue of the biblical David to decorate the dome of the cathedral, he decided to create a complete and perfect work, without reducing its size, and namely David. In 1503, on May 18, the statue was installed in the Piazza della Señoria, where it stood for more than 350 years.

In Michelangelo's long and dreary life there was only one period when happiness smiled on him - this was when he worked for Pope Julius II. Michelangelo, in his own way, loved this rude warrior pope, who had not at all papal harsh manners. The tomb of Pope Julius did not turn out as magnificent as Michelangelo intended. Instead of the Cathedral of St. Peter she was placed in the small church of St. Petra, where it did not even enter entirely, and its individual parts dispersed to different places. But even in this form it is rightfully one of the most famous creations of the Renaissance. Its central figure is the biblical Moses, the liberator of his people from Egyptian captivity (the artist hoped that Julius would liberate Italy from the conquerors). All-consuming passion, superhuman strength strain the hero’s powerful body, will and determination, a passionate thirst for action are reflected on his face, his gaze is directed towards the promised land. A demigod sits in Olympian majesty. One of his hands rests powerfully on the stone tablet on his knees, the other rests here with the carelessness worthy of a man for whom the movement of his eyebrows is enough to make everyone obey. As the poet said, “before such an idol the Jewish people had the right to prostrate themselves in prayer.” according to contemporaries, Michelangelo's "Moses" actually saw God.

At the request of Pope Julius, Michelangelo painted the ceiling Sistine Chapel in the Vatican with frescoes depicting the creation of the world. His paintings are dominated by lines and bodies. 20 years later, on one of the walls of the same chapel, Michelangelo painted the fresco “The Last Judgment” - a stunning vision of the appearance of Christ at the Last Judgment, at the wave of whose hand sinners fall into the abyss of hell. The muscular, Herculean giant resembles not the biblical Christ, who sacrificed himself for the good of humanity, but the personification of retribution of ancient mythology. The fresco reveals the terrible abysses of a desperate soul, the soul of Michelangelo.

Michelangelo's works express the pain caused by the tragedy of Italy, merging with the pain about his own sad fate. Michelangelo found beauty, which is not mixed with suffering and misfortune, in architecture. After Bramante's death, Michelangelo took over the construction of St. Peter's Basilica. A worthy successor to Bramante, he created a dome that is to this day unsurpassed in either size or grandeur,

Michelangelo had neither students nor a so-called school. But there remains a whole world created by him. 4

6. Raphael

The work of Raphael Santi belongs to those phenomena of European culture that are not only covered with world fame, but have also acquired special significance - the highest landmarks in the spiritual life of mankind. For five centuries, his art has been perceived as one of the examples of aesthetic perfection.

Raphael's genius was revealed in painting, graphics, and architecture. Raphael's works represent the most complete, vivid expression of the classical line, the classical principle in the art of the High Renaissance (Appendix 3). Raphael created a “universal image” of a beautiful person, perfect physically and spiritually, embodying the idea of ​​the harmonious beauty of existence.

Raphael (more precisely, Raffaello Santi) was born on April 6, 1483 in the city of Urbino. He received his first painting lessons from his father, Giovanni Santi. When Raphael was 11 years old, Giovanni Santi died and the boy was left an orphan (he lost the boy 3 years before the death of his father). Apparently, over the next 5-6 years he studied painting with Evangelista di Piandimeleto and Timoteo Viti, minor provincial masters.

The first works of Raphael known to us were performed around 1500 - 1502, when he was 17-19 years old. These are miniature-sized compositions “The Three Graces” and “The Knight’s Dream”. These simple-minded, still student-timid things are marked by subtle poetry and sincerity of feeling. From the very first steps of his creativity, Raphael's talent is revealed in all its originality, and his own artistic theme is outlined.

The best works of the early period include Madonna Conestabile. Compositions depicting the Madonna and Child brought Raphael wide fame and popularity. The fragile, meek, dreamy Madonnas of the Umbrian period were replaced by more earthly, full-blooded images, their inner world became more complex, rich in emotional shades. Raphael created a new type of image of the Madonna and Child - monumental, strict and lyrical at the same time, giving this topic unprecedented significance.

He glorified the earthly existence of man, the harmony of spiritual and physical forces in the paintings of stanzas (rooms) of the Vatican (1509-1517), achieving an impeccable sense of proportion, rhythm, proportions, euphony of color, unity of figures and the majesty of architectural backgrounds. There are many images of the Virgin Mary (“Sistine Madonna”, 1515-19), artistic ensembles in the paintings of the Villa Farnesina (1514-18) and the loggias of the Vatican (1519, with students). In portraits he creates the ideal image of a Renaissance man (“Baldassare Castiglione”, 1515). Designed the Cathedral of St. Peter, built the Chigi Chapel of the Church of Santa Maria del Popolo (1512-20) in Rome.

Raphael's painting, its style, its aesthetic principles reflected the worldview of the era. By the third decade of the 16th century, the cultural and spiritual situation in Italy had changed. Historical reality destroyed the illusions of Renaissance humanism. The revival was coming to an end. 5

Conclusion

During the Renaissance, interest in the art of ancient Greece and Rome arose, which prompted changes in Europe that marked the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of modern times. This period was not only a time of “revival” of the ancient past, it was a time of discovery and research, a time of new ideas. Classic examples inspired new thinking, with special attention paid to the human personality, the development and manifestation of abilities, rather than their limitations, which was characteristic of the Middle Ages. Teaching and research were no longer solely the work of the church. New schools and universities arose, natural science and medical experiments were carried out. Artists and sculptors strove in their work for naturalness, for a realistic recreation of the world and man. Classical statues and human anatomy were studied. Artists began to use perspective, abandoning flat images. The objects of art were the human body, classical and modern subjects, as well as religious themes. Capitalist relations were emerging in Italy, and diplomacy began to be used as a tool in relations between city-states. Scientific and technological discoveries, such as the invention of printing, contributed to the spread of new ideas. Gradually new ideas took hold of all of Europe.

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