History message on the topic of the Renaissance. The Renaissance - briefly. Features of the Renaissance are expressed in its features

The Renaissance brought about profound changes in all areas of culture - philosophy, science and art. One of them is. which becomes more and more independent of religion, ceases to be the “handmaiden of theology,” although it is still far from complete independence. As in other areas of culture, the teachings of ancient thinkers, primarily Plato and Aristotle, are being revived in philosophy. Marsilio Ficino founded the Platonic Academy in Florence and translated the works of the great Greek into Latin. Aristotle's ideas returned to Europe even earlier, before the Renaissance. During the Renaissance, according to Luther, it was he, not Christ, who “ruled in the European universities.”

Together with ancient teachings, the natural philosophy, or philosophy of nature. It is preached by such philosophers as B. Telesio, T. Campanella, D. Bruno. Their works develop ideas that philosophy should study not a supernatural God, but nature itself, that nature obeys its own internal laws, that the basis of knowledge is experience and observation, and not divine revelation, that man is part of nature.

The spread of natural philosophical views was facilitated by scientific openings. The main one was heliocentric theory N. Copernicus, which made a real revolution in ideas about the world.

It should be noted, however, that the scientific and philosophical views of that time are still noticeably influenced by religion and theology. This kind of view often takes the form pantheism, in which the existence of God is not denied, but He dissolves in nature and is identified with it. To this must also be added the influence of the so-called occult sciences- astrology, alchemy, mysticism, magic, etc. All this takes place even with such a philosopher as D. Bruno.

The most significant changes the Renaissance brought about were artistic culture, art. It was in this area that the break with the Middle Ages turned out to be most profound and radical.

In the Middle Ages, art was largely of an applied nature; it was woven into life itself and was supposed to decorate it. During the Renaissance, art for the first time acquired intrinsic value; it became an independent area of ​​beauty. At the same time, a purely artistic, aesthetic feeling is formed in the perceiving viewer for the first time, a love for art for its own sake, and not for the purpose it serves, awakens for the first time.

Never before has art enjoyed such high honor and respect. Even in ancient Greece The work of an artist in its social significance was noticeably inferior to the activities of a politician and a citizen. The artist occupied an even more modest place in ancient Rome.

Now place and role of the artist in society are increasing immeasurably. For the first time, he is seen as an independent and respected professional, scientist and thinker, a unique individual. During the Renaissance, art was perceived as one of the most powerful means of knowledge and, as such, was equated with science. Leonardo da Vinci views science and art as two completely equal ways of studying nature. He writes: “Painting is a science and the legitimate daughter of nature.”

Art as creativity is even more highly valued. According to their own creative possibilities the Renaissance artist is equated with God the creator. Hence it is clear why Raphael received the addition “Divine” to his name. For the same reasons, Dante’s “Comedy” was also called “Divine”.

Deep changes are taking place in art itself. It makes a decisive turn from the medieval symbol and sign to a realistic image and a reliable image. The means are becoming new artistic expression. Their basis is now linear and aerial perspective, three-dimensionality of volume, the doctrine of proportions. Art strives in everything to be true to reality, to achieve objectivity, authenticity and vitality.

The Renaissance was primarily Italian. Therefore, it is not surprising that it was in Italy that art reached its highest rise and flourishing during this period. It is here that there are dozens of names of titans, geniuses, great and simply talented artists. There are also great names in other countries, but Italy is beyond competition.

The Italian Renaissance is usually divided into several stages:

• Proto-Renaissance: second half of the 13th century. - XIV century
• Early Renaissance: almost the entire 15th century.
• High Renaissance: end of the 15th century. - first third of the 16th century.
• Late Renaissance: last two thirds of the 16th century.

The main figures of the Proto-Renaissance are the poet Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) and the painter Giotto (1266/67-1337).

Fate presented Dante with many trials. He was persecuted for his participation in the political struggle, he wandered, and died in a foreign land, in Ravenna. His contributions to culture go beyond poetry. He wrote not only love lyrics, but also philosophical and political treatises. Dante is the creator of the Italian literary language. He is sometimes called the last poet of the Middle Ages and the first poet of the Modern Age. These two principles - old and new - are indeed closely intertwined in his work.

Dante's first works - " New life" and "The Feast" are lyrical poems of love dedicated to his beloved Beatrice, whom he met once in Florence and who died seven years after their meeting. The poet kept his love for the rest of his life. In terms of its genre, Dante’s lyrics are in line with medieval courtly poetry, where the object of chanting is the image of “ Beautiful Lady" However, the feelings expressed by the poet already belong to the Renaissance. They are caused by real meetings and events, filled with sincere warmth, and marked by a unique personality.

The pinnacle of Dante's creativity was "Divine Comedy"", which has occupied a special place in the history of world culture. In its construction, this poem is also in line with medieval traditions. It tells about the adventures of a man caught in afterlife. The poem has three parts - Hell, Purgatory and Heaven, each of which has 33 songs written in three-line stanzas.

The repeated number “three” directly echoes the Christian doctrine of the Trinity. During the course of the story, Dante strictly follows many of the requirements of Christianity. In particular, he does not allow his companion through the nine circles of hell and purgatory - the Roman poet Virgil - into heaven, because a pagan is deprived of such a right. Here the poet is accompanied by his deceased beloved Beatrice.

However, in his thoughts and judgments, in his attitude towards the characters depicted and their sins. Dante often and very significantly diverges from Christian teaching. So. instead of the Christian condemnation of sensual love as a sin, he speaks of the “law of love,” according to which sensual love is included in the nature of life itself. Dante treats the love of Francesca and Paolo with understanding and sympathy. although their love is connected with Francesca's betrayal of her husband. The Spirit of the Renaissance triumphs in Dante in other cases as well.

Among the outstanding Italian poets is also Francesco Petrarca. In world culture he is known primarily for his sonnets. At the same time, he was a wide-ranging thinker, philosopher and historian. He is rightfully considered the founder of the entire Renaissance culture.

Petrarch's work is also partly within the framework of the medieval courtly lyrics. Like Dante, he had a lover named Laura, to whom he dedicated his “Book of Songs.” At the same time, Petrarch more decisively breaks ties with medieval culture. In his works, the feelings expressed - love, pain, despair, longing - appear much more acute and naked. The personal element is stronger in them.

One more a prominent representative literature has become Giovanni Boccaccio(1313-1375). author of the world famous Decameron." Boccaccio borrows the principle of constructing his collection of short stories and the plot outline from the Middle Ages. Everything else is imbued with the spirit of the Renaissance.

The main characters of the short stories are ordinary and ordinary people. They are written in surprisingly bright, lively, colloquial language. There are no boring moralizing in them; on the contrary, many short stories literally sparkle with love of life and fun. The plots of some of them are of a love and erotic nature. In addition to the Decameron, Boccaccio also wrote the story Fiametta, which is considered the first psychological novel Western literature.

Giotto di Bondone is the most prominent representative of the Italian Proto-Renaissance in the fine arts. His main genre was fresco painting. All of them are written on biblical and mythological subjects, depicting scenes from the life of the Holy Family, evangelists, and saints. However, the interpretation of these plots is clearly dominated by the Renaissance principle. In his work, Giotto abandons medieval conventions and turns to realism and verisimilitude. It is he who is credited with the merit of reviving painting as an artistic value in its own right.

His works depict a natural landscape quite realistically, in which trees, rocks, and temples are clearly visible. All participating characters, including the saints themselves, appear as living people, endowed with physical flesh, human feelings and passions. Their clothes outline the natural shapes of their bodies. Giotto's works are characterized by bright color and picturesqueness, subtle plasticity.

Giotto's main creation is the painting of the Chapel del Arena in Padua, which tells about events from the life of the Holy Family. The most impressive is the wall cycle, which includes scenes of “The Flight into Egypt,” “The Kiss of Judas,” and “The Lamentation of Christ.”

All the characters depicted in the paintings look natural and authentic. The position of their bodies, gestures, emotional state, looks, faces - all this is shown with rare psychological persuasiveness. At the same time, everyone’s behavior strictly corresponds to their assigned role. Each scene has a unique atmosphere.

Thus, in the scene “Flight into Egypt,” a restrained and generally calm emotional tone prevails. “The Kiss of Judas” is filled with stormy dynamism, sharp and decisive actions of characters who literally grappled with each other. And only the two main participants - Judas and Christ - froze without moving and fight with their eyes.

The scene “Mourning of Christ” is marked by special drama. She is filled with tragic despair, unbearable pain and suffering, inconsolable grief and sorrow.

The Early Renaissance finally established new aesthetic and artistic principles art. At the same time, biblical stories still remain very popular. However, their interpretation becomes completely different; there is little left of the Middle Ages in it.

Homeland Early Renaissance Florence became, and the architect is considered the “fathers of the Renaissance” Philippe Brunelleschi(1377-1446), sculptor Donatello(1386-1466). painter Masaccio (1401 -1428).

Brunelleschi made an enormous contribution to the development of architecture. He laid the foundations of Renaissance architecture and discovered new forms that lasted for centuries. He did a lot to develop the laws of perspective.

Brunelleschi's most significant work was the erection of a dome over the already completed structure of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence. He was faced with an extremely difficult task, since the required dome had to be enormous in size - about 50 m in diameter. With the help of an ingenious design, it comes out brilliantly difficult situation. Thanks to the solution found, not only the dome itself turned out to be surprisingly light and as if floating above the city, but the entire building of the cathedral acquired harmony and majesty.

No less beautiful work by Brunelleschi was the famous Pazzi Chapel, erected in the courtyard of the Church of Santa Croce in Florence. It is a small, rectangular building, covered in the center with a dome. The inside is lined with white marble. Like other Brunelleschi buildings, the chapel is distinguished by its simplicity and clarity, elegance and grace.

Brunelleschi's work is notable for the fact that he goes beyond places of worship and creates magnificent buildings of secular architecture. An excellent example of such architecture is the educational shelter house, built in the shape of the letter “P”, with a covered gallery-loggia.

Florentine sculptor Donatello is one of the most prominent creators of the Early Renaissance. He worked in a variety of genres, showing true innovation everywhere. In his work, Donatello uses the ancient heritage, relying on a deep study of nature, boldly updating the means of artistic expression.

He participates in the development of the theory of linear perspective, revives sculptural portrait and an image of a naked body, the first bronze monument is cast. The images he created are the embodiment of the humanistic ideal of a harmoniously developed personality. With his work, Donatello had a great influence on the subsequent development of European sculpture.

Donatello's desire to idealize the person portrayed is clearly manifested in statue of young David. In this work, David appears young, beautiful, full of spiritual and physical strength young men. The beauty of his naked body is emphasized by his gracefully curved torso. The young face expresses thoughtfulness and sadness. This statue was followed by a number of nude figures in Renaissance sculpture.

The heroic principle sounds strongly and clearly in statue of St. George, which became one of the peaks of Donatello's creativity. Here he was able to fully realize the idea strong personality. Before us is a tall, slender, courageous, calm and self-confident warrior. In this work, the master creatively develops the best traditions of ancient sculpture.

Donatello's classic work is the bronze statue of the commander Gattamelatta, the first equestrian monument in Renaissance art. Here great sculptor reaches the utmost level of artistic and philosophical generalization, which brings this work closer to antiquity.

At the same time, Donatello created a portrait of a specific and unique personality. The commander appears as a real Renaissance hero, a courageous, calm, self-confident person. The statue is distinguished by laconic forms, clear and distinct plasticity, and the naturalness of the pose of the rider and horse. Thanks to this, the monument has become a real masterpiece of monumental sculpture.

IN last period creativity Donatello creates a bronze group “Judith and Holofernes”. This work is filled with dynamics and drama: Judith is depicted at the moment when she raises her sword over the already wounded Holofernes. to finish him off.

Masaccio is rightfully considered one of the main figures of the Early Renaissance. He continues and develops the trends coming from Giotto. Masaccio lived only 27 years and managed to do little. However, the frescoes he created became a real school of painting for subsequent Italian artists. According to Vasari, a contemporary of the High Renaissance and an authoritative critic, “not a single master came so close to modern masters like Masaccio."

Masaccio's main creation is the frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel of the Church of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence, telling about episodes from the legends of St. Peter, and also depicting two biblical scenes - “The Fall” and “The Expulsion from Paradise.”

Although the frescoes tell of miracles performed by St. Peter, there is nothing supernatural or mystical in them. The depicted Christ, Peter, the apostles and other participants in the events appear to be completely earthly people. They are endowed with individual traits and behave completely naturally and humanly. In particular, in the “Baptism” scene, a naked young man shivering from the cold is surprisingly reliably shown. Masaccio builds his composition using not only linear, but also aerial perspective.

Of the entire cycle, it deserves special mention fresco "Expulsion from Paradise". It is a true masterpiece of painting. The fresco is extremely laconic, there is nothing superfluous in it. Against the background of a vague landscape, the figures of Adam and Eve who left the gates of Paradise are clearly visible, above which an angel with a sword hovers. All attention is focused on Mom and Eva.

Masaccio was the first in the history of painting to paint a naked body so convincingly and authentically, to convey its natural proportions, to give it stability and movement. Just as convincingly and vividly expressed internal state heroes. Walking widely, Adam lowered his head in shame and covered his face with his hands. Sobbing Eve threw her head back in despair with her mouth open. This fresco reveals new era in art.

What Masaccio did was continued by such artists as Andrea Mantegna(1431 -1506) and Sandro Botticelli(1455-1510). The first became famous primarily for its paintings, among which a special place is occupied by frescoes telling about latest episodes life of St. Jacob - the procession to execution and the execution itself. Botticelli preferred easel painting. His most famous paintings are “Spring” and “The Birth of Venus”.

From the end of the 15th century, when Italian art reached its highest rise, High Renaissance. For Italy this period turned out to be extremely difficult. Fragmented and therefore defenseless, it was literally devastated, plundered and bled white by invasions from France, Spain, Germany and Turkey. However, art during this period, oddly enough, experienced an unprecedented flourishing. It was at this time that titans like Leonardo da Vinci created. Raphael. Michelangelo, Titian.

In architecture, the beginning of the High Renaissance is associated with creativity Donato Bramante(1444-1514). It was he who created the style that determined the development of architecture of this period.

One of his early works was the church of the monastery of Santa Maria della Grazie in Milan, in the refectory of which Leonardo da Vinci would paint his famous fresco"The Last Supper". His fame begins with a small chapel called Tempetto(1502), built in Rome and which became a kind of “manifesto” of the High Renaissance. The chapel has the shape of a rotunda; it is distinguished by simplicity of architectural means, harmony of parts and rare expressiveness. This is a real little masterpiece.

The pinnacle of Bramante's work is the reconstruction of the Vatican and the transformation of its buildings into a single ensemble. He also developed the design of the Cathedral of St. Peter, which Michelangelo will make changes and begin to implement.

See also: Michelangelo Buonarroti

In art Italian Renaissance occupies a special place Venice. The school that developed here was significantly different from the schools of Florence, Rome, Milan or Bologna. The latter gravitated towards stable traditions and continuity; they were not inclined to radical renewal. It was these schools that he relied on classicism XVII V. and neoclassicism of subsequent centuries.

The Venetian school acted as a kind of counterweight and antipode to them. The spirit of innovation and radical, revolutionary renewal reigned here. Of the representatives of other Italian schools, Leonardo was closest to Venice. Perhaps it was here that his passion for search and experiment could find due understanding and recognition. In the famous dispute between “old and new” artists, the latter relied on the example of Venice. This is where the trends that led to Baroque and Romanticism originated. And although the Romantics revered Raphael, their real gods were Titian and Veronese. In Venice, El Greco received his creative charge, which allowed him to shake up Spanish painting. Velázquez passed through Venice. The same can be said about Flemish artists Rubens and Van Dyck.

As a port city, Venice found itself at the crossroads of economic and trade routes. It was influenced by Northern Germany, Byzantium and the East. Venice has become a place of pilgrimage for many artists. A. Durer was here twice - at the end of the 15th century. and the beginning of the 16th century. Goethe visited her (1790). Wagner listened to the singing of the gondoliers here (1857), under the inspiration of which he wrote the second act of Tristan and Isolde. Nietzsche also listened to the singing of gondoliers, calling it the singing of the soul.

The proximity of the sea evoked fluid and moving forms rather than clear geometric structures. Venice gravitated not so much to reason with its strict rules, but to feelings, from which the amazing poetry of Venetian art was born. The focus of this poetry was nature - its visible and tangible materiality, woman - the exciting beauty of her flesh, music - born from the play of colors and light and from the enchanting sounds of spiritualized nature.

The artists of the Venetian school gave preference not to form and design, but to color, the play of light and shadow. Depicting nature, they sought to convey its impulses and movement, variability and fluidity. Beauty female body they saw not so much in the harmony of forms and proportions, but in the living and feeling flesh itself.

Realistic plausibility and authenticity were not enough for them. They sought to reveal the riches inherent in painting itself. It is to Venice that the merit of discovering the pure pictorial principle, or picturesqueness in its pure form, belongs. Venetian artists were the first to show the possibility of separating picturesqueness from objects and form, the possibility of solving the problems of painting with the help of one color, purely pictorial means, the possibility of considering the picturesque as an end in itself. All subsequent painting, based on expression and expressiveness, will follow this path. According to some experts, from Titian one can move on to Rubens and Rembrandt, then to Delacroix, and from him to Gauguin, Van Gogh, Cezanne, etc.

The founder of the Venetian school is Giorgione(1476-1510). In his work he acted as a true innovator. The secular principle finally wins over him, and instead of biblical subjects, he prefers to write on mythological and literary themes. In his work, an easel painting is established, which no longer resembles an icon or an altar image.

Giorgione opens a new era in painting, being the first to paint from life. Depicting nature, he for the first time shifts the emphasis to mobility, variability and fluidity. An excellent example of this is his painting “Thunderstorm”. It was Giorgione who began to look for the secret of painting in light and its transitions, in the play of light and shadow, acting as a predecessor of Caravaggio and Caravaggism.

Giorgione created works of different genres and themes - “Rural Concert” and “Judith”. His most famous work was "Sleeping Venus"" This picture is devoid of any plot. She glorifies the beauty and charm of the naked female body, representing “nudity for its own sake.”

The head of the Venetian school is Titian(c. 1489-1576). His work - along with the work of Leonardo, Raphael and Michelangelo - is the pinnacle of Renaissance art. Most of his long life was spent in the Late Renaissance.

In the work of Titian, the art of the Renaissance reaches its highest rise and flowering. His works combine the creative search and innovation of Leonardo, the beauty and perfection of Raphael, the spiritual depth, drama and tragedy of Michelangelo. They are characterized by extraordinary sensuality, due to which they have a powerful impact on the viewer. Titian's works are surprisingly musical and melodic.

As Rubens notes, with Titian painting acquired its flavor, and according to Delacroix and Van Gogh, music. His canvases are painted with open strokes that are at the same time light, free and transparent. It is in his works that color seems to dissolve and absorb form, and the pictorial principle for the first time acquires autonomy and appears in its pure form. Realism in his works turns into charming and subtle lyricism.

In the works of the first period, Titian glorifies the carefree joy of life, the enjoyment of earthly goods. He glorifies the sensual principle, human flesh bursting with health, the eternal beauty of the body, the physical perfection of man. His paintings such as “Earthly and Heavenly Love”, “Feast of Venus”, “Bacchus and Ariadne”, “Danae”, “Venus and Adonis” are dedicated to this.

The sensual principle predominates in the picture "Penitent Magdalene”, although it is dedicated to a dramatic situation. But here, too, the repentant sinner has sensual flesh, a captivating body radiating light, full and sensual lips, rosy cheeks and golden hair. The canvas “Boy with Dogs” is filled with soulful lyricism.

In the works of the second period, the sensual principle is preserved, but it is complemented by growing psychologism and drama. Overall, Titian makes a gradual transition from the physical and sensual to the spiritual and dramatic. The ongoing changes in Titian's work are clearly visible in the embodiment of themes and subjects that the great artist addressed twice. A typical example in this regard is the painting “Saint Sebastian”. In the first version, the fate of a lonely sufferer abandoned by people does not seem too sad. On the contrary, the saint depicted is endowed vital forces and physical beauty. In a later version of the painting, located in the Hermitage, the same image takes on the features of tragedy.

An even more striking example is the variants of the painting “The Crowning of Thorns,” dedicated to an episode from the life of Christ. In the first of them, stored in the Louvre. Christ appears as a physically beautiful and strong athlete, capable of repelling his rapists. In the Munich version, created twenty years later, the same episode is conveyed much deeper, more complex and more meaningful. Christ is depicted in a white cloak, his eyes are closed, he calmly endures beating and humiliation. Now the main thing is not the coronation and beating, not physical phenomenon, but psychological and spiritual. The picture is filled with deep tragedy; it expresses the triumph of the spirit, spiritual nobility over physical strength.

In Titian's later works, the tragic sound becomes more and more intense. This is evidenced by the painting “Lamentation of Christ”.

Profound changes in the socio-economic and spiritual life of Italy at the end of the 14th century. played a decisive role in the emergence and development of a pan-European culture called the Renaissance.

The main feature of the revival movement is anthropocentrism (Greek anthropos - man), an orientation towards a comprehensive understanding of the existence of a particular person, the justification of his self-worth. Humanistic views are reflected in works of literature and art, philosophical and scientific treatises.

Philosophy, considering the problems of the universe (ontology, natural philosophy), socio-historical development, and the process of knowledge, gradually overcomes the previous theological form. The spiritual life of society begins to acquire a secular character. The first political theories and social utopias emerge. Natural science knowledge is receiving significant development.

Main features of the Renaissance

The Renaissance (or Renaissance), originating in Italy (late 14th century), then (XV-XVI centuries) turns into a phenomenon of pan-European culture. A radical change in spiritual life European peoples had deep roots in the socio-economic changes caused by the formation of early bourgeois relations. The Renaissance movement begins in Venice, Florence, Genoa (northern Italy), where trade intensively developed, processes of primitive accumulation of capital took place, and republican political regimes dominated. In a narrow sense, the term “revival” meant the active use by writers, philosophers, and scientists of the rich traditions of the ancient heritage. In broad terms, it has become synonymous with the new European culture. Its essential feature is anthropocentrism - intense interest in a specific person, his activities, place in the world, purpose, internal and external appearance, needs and aspirations. Individualism as a fundamental attitude when considering a person becomes a means of justifying his self-worth, the need for liberation from the socio-political and spiritual shackles of the Middle Ages. The increase in the personal factor is also expressed in social psychology, which, for example, manifests itself in relation to the time factor. It was during this period that the first mechanical clocks appeared on the towers of Italian city-states. The most prominent humanist G. Manetti argued that the almighty God, like a banker, distributes time to people like money, and then strictly asks everyone about the appropriateness of its use. Time becomes an active factor in personal, individual activity.

During the Renaissance, the demand for mental and intellectual labor increases, the number of so-called “liberal professions” rapidly grows, and a secular intelligentsia is formed. In distribution and development new culture a major role was played by “humanistic circles” - communities of progressively thinking representatives of art, science, religion, actively opposing the dominance of scholasticism.

The emergence of a humanistic worldview

The main direction of activity of humanists was philological science. Humanists began to look for, rewrite, and study first literary and then artistic monuments of antiquity, primarily statues. Moreover, in Florence - an ancient city founded in antiquity, and in Rome, and in Ravenna, and in Naples, most of the Greek and Roman statues, painted vessels, raconets, and buildings have been preserved. For the first time in a thousand years of Christianity, ancient statues were treated not as pagan idols, but as works of art. The same can be said about ancient books. Of course, ancient thinkers were not forgotten irrevocably - even during the era of the so-called Carolingian revival, that is, in the first century, and a century later, during the reign of Emperor Otgon, and in general throughout the Middle Ages, ancient manuscripts were copied in monasteries - otherwise they simply would not even reached the Renaissance, because the originals have not survived. And on the philosophy of Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas, the creator of the theological system of Catholicism, built a picture of the world, which the church accepted as dogma. Antique applied art, inherited by Byzantine artistic craft, did not die either.

But it is with humanists that the inclusion of the ancient heritage in the education system begins, acquaintance with ancient literature, sculpture, philosophy (that is, what is best preserved) among wide educated circles. Poets and artists strive to imitate ancient authors and generally revive ancient art. But, as often happens in history, especially in the history of art, the revival of some old principles and forms (if, of course, highly gifted people revive) leads to the creation of something completely new. The recognized capital of the Italian Renaissance was Florence. The great poet Dante Alighieri (1225-1321) was born here and received universal recognition. His pen includes: “The Divine Comedy”, “The Feast”, “On the Monarchy”. It was these works that had a great influence on the minds and hearts of people and inspired humanists. Another great lyric poet of Italy, Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374), is rightfully considered the founder of the Renaissance movement. In the cycle of poems (canzoniere) dedicated to Laura, the asceticism of the medieval consciousness is contrasted with natural feelings for the beloved and nature. A deeply religious man, he resolutely rejected scholasticism, which he considered the embodiment of stupidity and nonsense.

The progressive philosophy of the Renaissance was an integral part of humanistic culture. Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464), a cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church, proved himself to be one of the most profound and original thinkers of the early Renaissance. His main works: “On Learned Ignorance”, “On Assumptions”, “The Simpleton” (four dialogues), “On the Search for God”, “On the Hunt for Wisdom” and others. He was an active member of the humanist circle. He gained the greatest influence when his childhood friend became Pope Pius II, and he himself actually took second place in church hierarchy. The work of N. Kuzansky is anti-scholastic in nature, which is manifested in the pantheistic tendency of his philosophy and increased interest in ancient philosophy. Numerous works use the ideas of Pythagoras, Democritus, Anaxagoras, Aristotle, Boethius, especially Plato and the Neoplatonists. Of course, he does not and cannot deny the creationist tenets of Christian doctrine, but, on the contrary, being one of the leaders of the Roman Catholic Church, he sought to defend its dogmas. But, nevertheless, the identification to one degree or another of God and nature (pantheism) actually undermined the postulate of creation.

In the theory of knowledge, he considered the main goal not to achieve an unchangeable, forever given “divine truth,” but to endlessly expand human knowledge about the world around him. As stages of cognition, he identifies: sensations that give rise to vague images of things; reason designates things by names, operates with numbers, reveals opposites and contrasts them; reason carries out dialectical thinking and, through the ability to think the infinite, overcomes all opposition; intuition achieves the comprehension of truth through the complete coincidence of opposites. The mind is independent of sensations and reason and is a reflection of the absolute intellect - God. Consistently developing the doctrine of the “coincidence of opposites” in the infinite, Kuzanets examines the problems of the identity of “maximum” and “minimum” (ontology), absolute and relative in knowledge (“Scientific ignorance”), “microcosm” (man) and “macrocosm” (world ). Consideration of these and other problems, the content of which is directed against the prevailing dogmatism, makes N. Kuzansky one of the founders of the new European. The development of a humanistic worldview is closely related to the active development of the doctrine of man. An example of this is the work of Pico Dela Mirandola (1463-1494), who develops the idea of ​​Platonism about the “middle” position of man between the earthly, animal and divine. Possessing free will, he can descend to cattle or rise to a god-like being. The basic concept of Renaissance anthropology is expressed here: man creates his own destiny, is “his own sculptor and creator,” capable of limitless self-improvement and a happy existence on earth, and not in heaven.

Political doctrines and social utopias

Profound socio-economic changes contribute to the emergence of new ideas about the political structure of society, social ideals, ways and means of achieving them. One of the first bourgeois political ideologists was Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) - statesman, writer, historian. In his most famous work, "The Sovereign" ("Prince") reveals the motivations for people's activities - material interest, selfishness. The egoistic nature of man makes the state structure of society necessary. The state is the highest manifestation of the human spirit, and service to the state is the meaning and happiness of human life. Machiavelli believes that the best form of state is a republic, where everyone is responsible for its fate. But if the people do not have developed democratic traditions, then the sovereign can use any means to achieve political goals. As a private individual, the sovereign cannot neglect moral norms, but for the sake of the prosperity of the state, he may not take them into account. Later, Machiavellianism began to be understood as unprincipledness and cynicism in achieving political goals /See. Machiavelli N. Sovereign. M.: Planet, 1990/.

The English humanist and political figure Thomas More (1478-1535) in his book “Utopia” tried to solve specific problems of social reconstruction. The book consists of two sections. The first analyzes the specific historical conditions of English society in the 16th century. The second describes the ideal of a social structure that exists on a fictional island - Utopia (gr. U - no; topos - place. A place that does not exist). The main principles of this society are the absence of private property and compulsory labor for everyone. According to T. More VUtopias:

There is no private property;

all citizens participate in productive work;

Labor is carried out on the basis of universal labor service;

All produced products (results of labor) become the property of society (public warehouses) and are then evenly distributed among all residents of Utopia:

Due to the fact that everyone is busy with work, a short working day - six hours - is sufficient to ensure Utopia;

People who have demonstrated special abilities in science are exempt from work;

The dirtiest work is performed by slaves - prisoners of war and convicted criminals;

The primary unit of society is not the consanguineous family, but the “working family” (in fact, the work collective);

All officials are elected - directly or indirectly;

Men and women have equal rights (as well as equal responsibilities);

Residents believe in God, there is complete religious tolerance.

Other, most famous project social reconstruction is associated with the name of Tommaso Campanella (1568-1639). His interest in natural science was combined with an even greater interest in the socio-political problems of his time. For his participation in the fight against the Spanish yoke, he spent about thirty years in prison, where he wrote his main work, “City of the Sun.” The action takes place in the fantastic City of the Sun, where its inhabitants - the solarians - have built an ideal society based on social justice and enjoy life and work. By Campanella, in the City of the Sun:

There is no private property;

All citizens participate in productive work;

The results of labor become the property of the entire society, and then are evenly distributed among its members;

Work is combined with simultaneous training;

The life of tanning salons is regulated to the smallest detail, from getting up to going to bed;

Solariums do everything together: go from work to work, work, eat, relax, sing songs;

Much attention is paid to education - from birth the child is taken away from his parents and raised in special schools, where he is taught science and accustomed to collective life and other rules of behavior of the City of the Sun;

At the head of the City of the Sun is a lifelong ruler (elected by solariums) - a Metaphysician, who owns all the knowledge of his era and all professions.

The ideas of the utopian socialists, put forward during the Renaissance, were a response to existing social injustice and had many supporters among those who wanted to change the world both in the Renaissance and in the future.

Natural scientific views of the Renaissance, natural philosophy

Italian humanists of the XIV-XV centuries. had relatively little interest in the natural sciences. But the development of production and the increasing complexity of practical activities revealed the need for an ever more in-depth study of nature, to identify the patterns of processes occurring in it. One of the features of Renaissance science is that it arises in close connection with art. Moreover, this unity sometimes manifests itself in the activities of one person. An example of this is the work of the brilliant artist, engineer, scientist - naturalist, philosopher - Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519). Having received his education in art workshops, he quickly becomes a first-class master of painting. His paintings "La Gioconda", "The Last Supper" and others represent the main masterpieces of the Renaissance. The scope of his engineering interests is vast. He was the first to express the ideas of a loom, a parachute, a helicopter, a submarine, hydraulic locks and others. Being an irreconcilable opponent of scholastic scholarship, he saw the basis of scientific activity in practice, and developed a methodology for targeted experience - experiment. He deeply comprehended the meaning and role of science in knowledge (“Science is the commander, and practice is the soldiers”). He rightfully entered the history of science as a pioneer of modern natural science.

The most important scientific discovery of the period under review is the heliocentric system of Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), which laid the foundations of scientific astronomy. The "Copernican revolution" undermined the centuries-long dominance of Aristotelian-Ptolemaic cosmology, which asserted central place The earth and its immobility, led to far-reaching conclusions about the inconsistency of religious ideas, contributed to the formation of a scientific worldview, and had a decisive influence on the further development of natural science /See. right there. p.117-128/.

The ideas of N. Copernicus received their comprehensive development in the natural philosophy of the great Italian thinker Giordano Bruno (1548-1600), who most fully and deeply embodied in his work such important features of humanistic philosophy as pantheism, dialecticism, a keen sense of the harmony of nature, its infinity. The radical pantheism of the thinker, i.e. the absolute identification of God and nature, which denied the postulate of the doctrine of the creation of the world - the reason for his irreconcilable conflict with the church, which played a tragic role in his fate. Fundamental in his teaching is the concept of the One, which is both the cause of existence and the very existence of things. God, as it were, “moves” into nature, which perceives such of his qualities as infinity in space and time, creative character and others. Based on the inseparability of God and nature, he gave the latter an active role and argued that matter “creates everything from its womb.” The Nolanian gave physical homogeneity to all the infinite things of the world, adhered to hylozoism (universal animation of nature), thereby explaining the reason for the movement of cosmic bodies: the law universal gravity hasn't been opened yet. Actively uses the tenets of N. Cusanian dialectics, frees it from theological content and formulates it as a doctrine of nature. So, for example, J. Bruno refuses to recognize the absolute center of the Universe: the infinity of the One excludes the very possibility of such a center. Thus, various theological and scholastic restrictions on the infinity of the Universe and the surrounding world are removed. The naturalistic pantheism of G. Bruno played an important role and was continued in European freethinking of the 18th-19th centuries. /Cm. right there. p.154-176/.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) - the great natural scientist completes the development of science during the Renaissance and opens the page of European experimental and mathematical natural science. An opponent of scholastic learning, Galileo founded a mechanistic interpretation of the world and adhered to the views of deism. As a result of the evidence he formulated, the heliocentric system of N. Copernicus and G. Bruno turns from a hypothesis into a demonstrative theory. Having revised previous physical views, which were strongly influenced by scholasticism, the scientist creates dynamics - the doctrine of the movement of bodies. The discovery of the laws of mechanics, as well as the laws of motion of planets around the Sun (I. Kepler), the knowledge of which was based on mathematical methods, leads to the final rejection of the elements of anthropomorphism. The concept of a law of nature acquires a strictly scientific content. Galileo formulated his main ideas in “Dialogue on the two most important systems of the world - Ptolemaic and Copernican.” The Inquisition, under threat of burning, forced the scientist to formally renounce his “delusions,” but nothing could stop the progressive development of science

The era... of new prerequisites for the formation of a humanistic culture era Renaissance was the emergence of a humanistic intelligentsia. ... about the social elitism of bourgeois culture. IN era Renaissance for the first time the idea of ​​intellectual...

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IV. PHILOSOPHY AGES REVIVAL Sometimes the term " Revival" understood broadly... to nature, what happened in era Renaissance, can be illustrated catchphrase...mystery. And only in era Renaissance it is the earthly woman, the beloved, ...

Details Category: Fine arts and architecture of the Renaissance (Renaissance) Published 12/19/2016 16:20 Views: 10232

The Renaissance is a time of cultural flourishing, the heyday of all arts, but the one that most fully expressed the spirit of its time was fine art.

Renaissance, or Renaissance(fr. “new” + “born”) had global significance in the history of European culture. The Renaissance replaced the Middle Ages and preceded the Age of Enlightenment.
Main features of the Renaissance– the secular nature of culture, humanism and anthropocentrism (interest in man and his activities). During the Renaissance, interest in ancient culture and it is as if its “rebirth” is taking place.
The Renaissance arose in Italy - its first signs appeared in the 13th-14th centuries. (Tony Paramoni, Pisano, Giotto, Orcagna, etc.). But it was firmly established in the 20s of the 15th century, and by the end of the 15th century. reached its peak.
In other countries, the Renaissance began much later. In the 16th century a crisis of Renaissance ideas begins, a consequence of this crisis is the emergence of mannerism and baroque.

Renaissance periods

The Renaissance is divided into 4 periods:

1. Proto-Renaissance (2nd half of the 13th century - 14th century)
2. Early Renaissance (beginning of the 15th - end of the 15th century)
3. High Renaissance (end of the 15th - first 20 years of the 16th century)
4. Late Renaissance (mid-16th-90s of the 16th century)

The fall played a role in the formation of the Renaissance Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines who moved to Europe brought with them their libraries and works of art, unknown medieval Europe. Byzantium never broke with ancient culture.
Appearance humanism(a socio-philosophical movement that considered man as the highest value) was associated with the absence of feudal relations in the Italian city-republics.
Secular centers of science and art began to emerge in cities, which were not controlled by the church. whose activities were outside the control of the church. In the middle of the 15th century. Printing was invented, which played an important role in the spread of new views throughout Europe.

Brief characteristics of the Renaissance periods

Proto-Renaissance

The Proto-Renaissance is the forerunner of the Renaissance. It is also closely connected with the Middle Ages, with Byzantine, Romanesque and Gothic traditions. He is associated with the names of Giotto, Arnolfo di Cambio, the Pisano brothers, Andrea Pisano.

Andrea Pisano. Bas-relief "Creation of Adam". Opera del Duomo (Florence)

Proto-Renaissance painting is represented by two art schools: Florence (Cimabue, Giotto) and Siena (Duccio, Simone Martini). Central figure painting was Giotto. He was considered a reformer of painting: he filled religious forms with secular content, made a gradual transition from flat images to three-dimensional and relief ones, turned to realism, introduced plastic volume of figures into painting, and depicted interiors in painting.

Early Renaissance

This is the period from 1420 to 1500. Artists of the Early Renaissance of Italy drew motifs from life and filled traditional religious subjects with earthly content. In sculpture these were L. Ghiberti, Donatello, Jacopo della Quercia, the della Robbia family, A. Rossellino, Desiderio da Settignano, B. da Maiano, A. Verrocchio. In their work, a free-standing statue, a picturesque relief, a portrait bust, and an equestrian monument began to develop.
IN Italian painting XV century (Masaccio, Filippo Lippi, A. del Castagno, P. Uccello, Fra Angelico, D. Ghirlandaio, A. Pollaiolo, Verrocchio, Piero della Francesca, A. Mantegna, P. Perugino, etc.) are characterized by a sense of harmonious order of the world, appeal to the ethical and civic ideals of humanism, a joyful perception of the beauty and diversity of the real world.
The founder of Renaissance architecture in Italy was Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446), an architect, sculptor and scientist, one of the creators of the scientific theory of perspective.

A special place in the history of Italian architecture occupies Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472). This Italian scientist, architect, writer and musician of the Early Renaissance was educated in Padua, studied law in Bologna, and later lived in Florence and Rome. He created theoretical treatises “On the Statue” (1435), “On Painting” (1435–1436), “On Architecture” (published in 1485). He defended the “folk” (Italian) language as a literary language, and in his ethical treatise “On the Family” (1737-1441) he developed the ideal of a harmoniously developed personality. In his architectural work, Alberti gravitated towards bold experimental solutions. He was one of the founders of new European architecture.

Palazzo Rucellai

Leon Battista Alberti designed new type a palazzo with a facade, rusticated to its entire height and dissected by three tiers of pilasters, which look like the structural basis of the building (Palazzo Rucellai in Florence, built by B. Rossellino according to Alberti’s plans).
Opposite the Palazzo stands the Loggia Rucellai, where receptions and banquets were held for trading partners, weddings were celebrated.

Loggia Rucellai

High Renaissance

This is the time of the most magnificent development of the Renaissance style. In Italy it lasted from approximately 1500 to 1527. Now the center of Italian art from Florence moves to Rome, thanks to the accession to the papal throne Julia II, an ambitious, courageous, enterprising man, attracted to his court best artists Italy.

Rafael Santi "Portrait of Pope Julius II"

In Rome, many monumental buildings are built, magnificent sculptures are created, frescoes and paintings are painted, which are still considered masterpieces of painting. Antiquity is still highly valued and carefully studied. But imitation of the ancients does not drown out the independence of artists.
The pinnacle of the Renaissance is the work of Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) and Raphael Santi (1483-1520).

Late Renaissance

In Italy this is the period from the 1530s to the 1590s-1620s. The art and culture of this time are very diverse. Some believe (for example, British scientists) that “The Renaissance as a holistic historical period ended with the fall of Rome in 1527." Art late Renaissance presents a very complex picture of the struggle between various currents. Many artists did not strive to study nature and its laws, but only outwardly tried to assimilate the “manner” of the great masters: Leonardo, Raphael and Michelangelo. On this occasion, the elderly Michelangelo once said, watching artists copy his “Last Judgment”: “This art of mine will make fools of many.”
In Southern Europe, the Counter-Reformation triumphed, which did not welcome any free thought, including the glorification of the human body and the resurrection of the ideals of antiquity.
Famous artists of this period were Giorgione (1477/1478-1510), Paolo Veronese (1528-1588), Caravaggio (1571-1610) and others. Caravaggio considered the founder of the Baroque style.

Renaissance (Renaissance). Italy. XV-XVI centuries. Early capitalism. The country is ruled by rich bankers. They are interested in art and science.

The rich and powerful gather around them the talented and wise. Poets, philosophers, artists and sculptors have daily conversations with their patrons. At some point, it seemed that people were ruled by wise men, as Plato wanted.

We remembered the ancient Romans and Greeks. They also built a society of free citizens, where the main value is people (not counting slaves, of course).

Renaissance is not just copying the art of ancient civilizations. This is a mixture. Mythology and Christianity. Realism of nature and sincerity of images. Physical and spiritual beauty.

It was just a flash. The High Renaissance period is approximately 30 years! From the 1490s to 1527 From the beginning of the heyday of Leonardo's creativity. Before the sack of Rome.

The mirage of an ideal world quickly faded. Italy turned out to be too fragile. She was soon enslaved by another dictator.

However, these 30 years determined the main features of European painting for 500 years to come! Up to .

Realism of the image. Anthropocentrism (when the center of the world is Man). Linear perspective. Oil paints. Portrait. Scenery…

It’s incredible, but during these 30 years several brilliant masters worked at once. At other times they are born once every 1000 years.

Leonardo, Michelangelo, Raphael and Titian are the titans of the Renaissance. But we cannot fail to mention their two predecessors: Giotto and Masaccio. Without which there would be no Renaissance.

1. Giotto (1267-1337)

Paolo Uccello. Giotto da Bondogni. Fragment of the painting “Five Masters of the Florentine Renaissance.” Beginning of the 16th century. .

XIV century. Proto-Renaissance. Its main character is Giotto. This is a master who single-handedly revolutionized art. 200 years before the High Renaissance. If it were not for him, the era of which humanity is so proud would hardly have come.

Before Giotto there were icons and frescoes. They were created according to Byzantine canons. Faces instead of faces. Flat figures. Failure to comply with proportions. Instead of a landscape there is a golden background. Like, for example, on this icon.

Guido da Siena. Adoration of the Magi. 1275-1280 Altenburg, Lindenau Museum, Germany.

And suddenly frescoes by Giotto appear. They have voluminous figures. Faces of noble people. Old and young. Sad. Mournful. Surprised. Different.

Frescoes by Giotto in the Church of Scrovegni in Padua (1302-1305). Left: Lamentation of Christ. Middle: Kiss of Judas (fragment). Right: Annunciation of St. Anne (Mother Mary), fragment.

Giotto's main work is the cycle of his frescoes in the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua. When this church opened to parishioners, crowds of people poured into it. They had never seen anything like this.

After all, Giotto did something unprecedented. He translated biblical stories into simple, clear language. And they have become much more accessible ordinary people.

Giotto. Adoration of the Magi. 1303-1305 Fresco in the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua, Italy.

This is precisely what will be characteristic of many Renaissance masters. Laconic images. Lively emotions of the characters. Realism.

Read more about the master's frescoes in the article.

Giotto was admired. But his innovation was not developed further. The fashion for international gothic came to Italy.

Only after 100 years will a worthy successor to Giotto appear.

2. Masaccio (1401-1428)

Masaccio. Self-portrait (fragment of the fresco “St. Peter on the pulpit”). 1425-1427 Brancacci Chapel in the Church of Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence, Italy.

Beginning of the 15th century. The so-called Early Renaissance. Another innovator is entering the scene.

Masaccio was the first artist to use linear perspective. It was designed by his friend, the architect Brunelleschi. Now the depicted world has become similar to the real one. Toy architecture is a thing of the past.

Masaccio. Saint Peter heals with his shadow. 1425-1427 Brancacci Chapel in the Church of Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence, Italy.

He adopted Giotto's realism. However, unlike his predecessor, he already knew anatomy well.

Instead of blocky characters, Giotto has beautifully built people. Just like the ancient Greeks.

Masaccio. Baptism of neophytes. 1426-1427 Brancacci Chapel, Church of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence, Italy.
Masaccio. Expulsion from Paradise. 1426-1427 Fresco in the Brancacci Chapel, Church of Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence, Italy.

Masaccio did not live long life. He died, like his father, unexpectedly. At 27 years old.

However, he had many followers. Masters of subsequent generations went to the Brancacci Chapel to study from his frescoes.

Thus, Masaccio’s innovation was taken up by all the great artists of the High Renaissance.

3. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)

Leonardo da Vinci. Self-portrait. 1512 Royal Library in Turin, Italy.

Leonardo da Vinci is one of the titans of the Renaissance. He had a tremendous influence on the development of painting.

It was da Vinci who raised the status of the artist himself. Thanks to him, representatives of this profession are no longer just artisans. These are creators and aristocrats of the spirit.

Leonardo made a breakthrough primarily in portrait painting.

He believed that nothing should distract from the main image. The gaze should not wander from one detail to another. This is how his famous portraits appeared. Laconic. Harmonious.

Leonardo da Vinci. Lady with an ermine. 1489-1490 Czertoryski Museum, Krakow.

Leonardo's main innovation is that he found a way to make images... alive.

Before him, characters in portraits looked like mannequins. The lines were clear. All details are carefully drawn. The painted drawing could not possibly be alive.

Leonardo invented the sfumato method. He shaded the lines. Made the transition from light to shadow very soft. His characters seem to be covered with a barely perceptible haze. The characters came to life.

. 1503-1519 Louvre, Paris.

Sfumato will be included in the active vocabulary of all great artists of the future.

There is often an opinion that Leonardo, of course, is a genius, but did not know how to complete anything. And I often didn’t finish paintings. And many of his projects remained on paper (by the way, in 24 volumes). And in general he was thrown either into medicine or into music. At one time I was even interested in the art of serving.

However, think for yourself. 19 paintings - and he is the greatest artist of all time. And someone doesn’t even come close in terms of greatness, yet he painted 6,000 canvases in his life. It is obvious who has the higher efficiency.

About herself famous painting read the master in the article.

4. Michelangelo (1475-1564)

Daniele da Volterra. Michelangelo (fragment). 1544 Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

Michelangelo considered himself a sculptor. But there was universal master. Like his other Renaissance colleagues. Therefore, his pictorial heritage is no less grandiose.

He is recognizable primarily by his physically developed characters. He portrayed a perfect man in whom physical beauty means spiritual beauty.

That’s why all his heroes are so muscular and resilient. Even women and old people.

Michelangelo. Fragments of the fresco “The Last Judgment” in Sistine Chapel, Vatican.

Michelangelo often painted the character naked. And then he added clothes on top. So that the body is as sculpted as possible.

He painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel alone. Although these are several hundred figures! He didn’t even allow anyone to rub paint. Yes, he was unsociable. He had a tough and quarrelsome character. But most of all he was dissatisfied with... himself.

Michelangelo. Fragment of the fresco “The Creation of Adam”. 1511 Sistine Chapel, Vatican.

Michelangelo lived a long life. Survived the decline of the Renaissance. For him it was a personal tragedy. His later works are full of sadness and sorrow.

Anyway creative path Michelangelo is unique. His early works are a celebration of the human hero. Free and courageous. In the best traditions Ancient Greece. What's his name David?

IN recent years life is tragic images. Intentionally rough-hewn stone. It’s as if we are looking at monuments to the victims of 20th century fascism. Look at his Pietà.

Michelangelo's sculptures at the Academy fine arts in Florence. Left: David. 1504 Right: Palestrina's Pietà. 1555

How is this possible? One artist in one life went through all stages of art from the Renaissance to the 20th century. What should subsequent generations do? Go your own way. Realizing that the bar is set very high.

5. Raphael (1483-1520)

. 1506 Uffizi Gallery, Florence, Italy.

Raphael was never forgotten. His genius was always recognized: both during life and after death.

His characters are endowed with sensual, lyrical beauty. It is he who is rightfully considered the most beautiful female images ever created. External beauty reflects the spiritual beauty of the heroines. Their meekness. Their sacrifice.

Raphael. . 1513 Old Masters Gallery, Dresden, Germany.

Fyodor Dostoevsky said the famous words “Beauty will save the world” about. This was his favorite painting.

However, sensory images are not the only strong point Raphael. He thought through the compositions of his paintings very carefully. He was an unsurpassed architect in painting. Moreover, he always found the simplest and most harmonious solution in organizing space. It seems that it cannot be any other way.

Raphael. Athens School. 1509-1511 Fresco in the Stanzas of the Apostolic Palace, Vatican.

Raphael lived only 37 years. He died suddenly. From a caught cold and medical error. But his legacy is difficult to overestimate. Many artists idolized this master. And they multiplied his sensual images in thousands of their canvases..

Titian was an unsurpassed colorist. He also experimented a lot with composition. In general, he was a daring innovator.

Everyone loved him for such brilliance of his talent. Called “the king of painters and the painter of kings.”

Speaking about Titian, after every sentence I want to put exclamation mark. After all, it was he who brought dynamics to painting. Pathos. Enthusiasm. Bright color. Shine of colors.

Titian. Ascension of Mary. 1515-1518 Church of Santa Maria Gloriosi dei Frari, Venice.

Towards the end of his life he developed an unusual writing technique. The strokes are fast and thick. I applied the paint either with a brush or with my fingers. This makes the images even more alive and breathing. And the plots are even more dynamic and dramatic.

Titian. Tarquin and Lucretia. 1571 Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, England.

Does this remind you of anything? Of course, this is technology. And technology artists of the XIX centuries: Barbizonians and. Titian, like Michelangelo, would go through 500 years of painting in one lifetime. That's why he's a genius.

ABOUT famous masterpiece Read the master in the article.

Renaissance artists are the owners of great knowledge. To leave such a legacy, there was a lot to learn. In the field of history, astrology, physics and so on.

Therefore, every image of them makes us think. Why is this depicted? What is the encrypted message here?

They were almost never wrong. Because they thoroughly thought through their future work. We used all our knowledge.

They were more than artists. They were philosophers. They explained the world to us through painting.

That is why they will always be deeply interesting to us.

A message on the topic: “The Renaissance,” briefly outlined in this article, will tell you about this amazing era in the history of culture.

Report "Renaissance"

Renaissance culture swept Italy, with Florence as its center. The term “renaissance” was first used by the famous architect, art historian and painter Giorgio Vasari in his work “Biographies of the Most Famous Painters, Sculptors and Architects.” But why is the era called Renaissance? The fact is that it relied on Antiquity, and the Renaissance on initial stage meant as a revival of Antiquity. Later it meant the revival of man, humanism. This is a unique and unique culture that has left behind many masterpieces. There are two types of Renaissance - Northern Renaissance and the Italian Renaissance.

Features of the Renaissance are expressed in its features:

• Humanism
• Anthropocentrism
• A new attitude towards the world
• Revival of ancient philosophy and ancient monuments of art
• Modification of the Christian medieval tradition

The essence of the Renaissance

During the Renaissance, they adhered to medieval views - the hierarchy of the worlds, the divine origin of the world, symbolic analogies of the divine and earthly worlds. But there is still a slight difference in ideas about the world order: the essence of this era is in the doctrine of double truth. That is, in justifying the distinction between the power of the state and the power of the church.

Figures of the Renaissance or Renaissance contributed to the scientifically rationalistic worldview through discoveries in astronomy. Their ideas of the heliocentric model and the infinity of the Universe, the plurality of worlds became the basis of a new worldview.

During the Renaissance, a new type of personal behavior was formed: awareness of one’s own originality and uniqueness, thanks to which a person is able to do a lot. A model has emerged in culture cultured person– “homo universalis”. She characterized a creative and efficient personality.

During this period, the influence of the church on society began to weaken. And the development of book printing contributed to the growth of literacy, education, the development of arts, sciences, fiction. Representatives of the bourgeoisie created secular science, which was based on the study of the heritage of ancient writers and nature.

In addition to the bourgeoisie, artists and writers dared to speak out against the church. They brought to the masses the idea that it is not God who is the greatest value, but man. In his earthly life, he must realize his personal interests in order to live it meaningfully, fully and happily. Such cultural figures were called humanists.

The Renaissance was characterized by a cycle of changes in literature. A new genre of Renaissance realism appeared, which was searching for an answer to the question of the importance and complexity of establishing a person as an individual, the formation of his effective and creative beginning.

Representatives of the Renaissance rejected the slavish obedience preached by the church. In their understanding, man was presented as the highest creation of nature, filled with the beauty of his physical appearance, the richness of his mind and soul.

The world of the Renaissance is most expressively and vividly expressed in the Sistine Chapel of the Vatican, the author of which was Michelangelo. The chapel vault is decorated biblical stories. Their main motive is the creation of the world and the creation of man. The Last Judgment fresco is a work that completed the Renaissance in art.

A few words should also be said about the Northern Renaissance. It played a more economic role, penetrating commodity-money relations and pan-European market processes. They changed people's consciousness. The influence of Antiquity is little felt here; it is more like a reform movement.