Painting of France: Northern Renaissance. Renaissance in France The extraordinary genius of da Vinci

Even during the Hundred Years' War, the process of the formation of the French nation and the emergence of the French national state began. The political unification of the country was completed mainly under Louis XI. By the middle of the 15th century. This also includes the beginning of the French Renaissance, which in its early stages was still closely associated with Gothic art. The campaigns of the French kings in Italy introduced French artists to Italian art, and from the end of the 15th century. a decisive break with the Gothic tradition begins, Italian art is rethought in connection with its own national tasks. The French Renaissance had the character of court culture. (The folk character was most manifested in French Renaissance literature, primarily in the work of François Rabelais, with his full-blooded imagery, typical Gallic wit and cheerfulness.)

As in Dutch art, realistic tendencies are observed primarily in the miniature of both theological and secular books. The first major artist of the French Renaissance was Jean Fouquet (c. 1420-1481), court painter of Charles VII and Louis XI. Both in portraits (portrait of Charles VII, circa 1445) and in religious compositions (diptych from Melun), careful writing is combined with monumentality in the interpretation of the image. This monumentality is created by the chasing of forms, the closedness and integrity of the silhouette, the static nature of the pose, and the laconicism of color. In fact, the Madonna of the Melun diptych was painted in just two colors - bright red and blue (the model for her was the beloved of Charles VII - a fact impossible in medieval art). The same compositional clarity and precision of drawing, sonority of color are characteristic of numerous miniatures by Fouquet (Boccaccio. “Life J. Fouquet. Portrait of Charles VII. Fragment, famous men and women", Paris, Louvre around 1458). The margins of the manuscripts are filled with images of Fouquet's contemporary crowd and landscapes of his native Touraine.

J. Fouquet. Portrait of Charles VII. Fragment. Paris, Louvre

The first stages of Renaissance plastic art are also associated with Fouquet’s homeland, the city of Tours. Antique and Renaissance motifs appear in the reliefs of Michel Colombe (1430/31-1512). His tombstones are distinguished by a wise acceptance of death, in tune with the mood of archaic and classical ancient steles (the tomb of Duke Francis II of Brittany and his wife Marguerite de Foix, 1502-1507, Nantes, cathedral).

Since the beginning of the 16th century, France has been the largest absolutist state in Western Europe. The courtyard becomes the center of culture, especially under Francis I, a connoisseur of the arts and patron of Leonardo. Invited by the king's sister Margaret of Navarre, the Italian mannerists Rosso and Primaticcio became the founders of the Fontainebleau school (“Fontainebleau is the new Rome,” Vasari would write). The castle in Fontainebleau, numerous castles along the Loire and Cher rivers (Blois, Chambord, Chenonceau), the reconstruction of the old Louvre palace (architect Pierre Lescaut and sculptor Jean Goujon) are the first evidence of liberation from the Gothic tradition and the use of Renaissance forms in architecture (first used in the Louvre ancient order system). And although the castles on the Loire are still externally similar to medieval ones in their details (ditches, donjons, drawbridges), their interior decor is Renaissance, even rather manneristic. The castle of Fontainebleau with its paintings, ornamental modeling, and round sculpture is evidence of the victory of a culture that was Italian in form, ancient in subject and purely Gallic in spirit.

J. Clouet. Portrait of Francis I. Paris, Louvre

The 16th century was the time of the brilliant heyday of French portraiture, both painting and pencil (Italian pencil, sanguine, watercolor). The painter Jean Clouet (circa 1485/88-1541), the court artist of Francis I, whose entourage, as well as the king himself, he immortalized in his portrait gallery, became especially famous in this genre. Small in size, carefully painted, Clouet's portraits nevertheless give the impression of being multifaceted in characteristics and ceremonial in form. In the ability to notice the most important thing in a model, without impoverishing it and preserving its complexity, his son François Clouet (circa 1516-1572), the most important artist of France in the 16th century, went even further. Clouet's colors are reminiscent of precious enamels in their intensity and purity (portrait of Elizabeth of Austria, circa 1571). In his exceptional mastery of pencil, sanguine, and watercolor portraits, Clouet captured the entire French court of the mid-16th century. (portrait of Henry II, Mary Stuart, etc.).

The victory of the Renaissance worldview in French sculpture is associated with the name of Jean Goujon (circa 1510-1566/68), whose most famous work is the reliefs of the Fountain of the Innocents in Paris (architectural part - Pierre Lescaut; 1547-1549). Light, slender figures, the folds of whose clothes are echoed by streams of water from jugs, are interpreted with amazing musicality, imbued with poetry, minted and polished and laconic and restrained in form. A sense of proportion, grace, harmony, and subtlety of taste will henceforth invariably be associated with French art.

In the work of Goujon's younger contemporary Germain Pilon (1535-1590), instead of ideally beautiful, harmoniously clear images, concrete life-like, dramatic, darkly exalted images appear (see his tombstones). The richness of his plastic language serves a cold analysis, reaching the point of mercilessness in characterization, in which its analogue can only be found in Holbein. The expressiveness of Pilon's dramatic art is typical of the late Renaissance and indicates the impending end of the Renaissance era in France.

J. Goujon. Nymphs. Relief of the Fountain of the Innocents in Paris. Stone

The features of the crisis of the artistic ideals of the Renaissance were especially clearly manifested in mannerism, which emerged at the end of the Renaissance (from maniera - technique, or, more correctly, manierismo - pretentiousness, mannerism), - obvious imitation, as if secondary style with all the virtuosity of technology and sophistication of forms, aestheticization image, exaggeration of individual details, sometimes even expressed in the title of the work, such as in Parmigianino’s “Madonna with a Long Neck”, exaggeration of feelings, violation of the harmony of proportions, balance of forms - disharmony, deformation, which in itself is alien to the nature of the art of the Italian Renaissance.

Mannerism is usually divided into early and mature. Early mannerism - centered in Florence. This is the work of such masters as J. Pontormo, D. Rosso, A. de Volterra, G. Romano. The latter's paintings in the Palazzo del Te in Mantua are full of unexpected, almost frightening effects, the composition is overloaded, the balance is disturbed, the movements are exaggerated and convulsive - but everything is theatrically superficial, coldly pathetic and does not touch the heart (see the fresco "The Death of Giants", for example ).

Mature mannerism is more graceful, sophisticated and aristocratic. Its centers are Parma and Bologna (Primaticcio, from 1531 he was the head of the Fontainebleau school in France), Rome and Florence (Bronzino, a student of Pontormo; D. Vasari; sculptor and jeweler B. Cellini), as well as Parma (the already mentioned Parmigianino, his Madonnas are always depicted with elongated bodies and small heads, with fragile, thin fingers, with mannered, pretentious movements, always cold in color and cold in image).

Mannerism was limited to Italy, it spread to Spain, Germany, the Netherlands, France, influencing their painting and especially applied art, in which the unbridled imagination of the mannerists found favorable soil and a wide field of activity.

The Renaissance was a significant stage in the development of French culture. At this time, bourgeois relations were rapidly developing in the country and monarchical power was strengthening. The religious ideology of the Middle Ages is gradually being pushed into the background by the humanistic worldview. Big role in cultural life In France, secular art begins to play a role. Realism of French art, connection with scientific knowledge, appeal to the ideas and images of antiquity brings him closer to Italian. At the same time, the Renaissance in France has a unique appearance, in which Renaissance humanism is combined with elements of tragedy born of the contradictions of the current situation in the country.

As a result of many defeats for France during the Hundred Years' War with England, which lasted from 1337 to 1453, feudal anarchy reigned in the country. The peasantry, crushed by unbearable taxes and the atrocities of the occupiers, rose up to fight their oppressors. The liberation movement flared up with particular force at the moment when the British troops, who had captured the north of France, headed towards Orleans. Patriotic sentiments resulted in the performance of French peasants and knights under the leadership of Joan of Arc against the English troops. The rebels won several brilliant victories. The movement did not stop even when Joan of Arc was captured and, with the tacit consent of the French king Charles VII, burned at the stake by the clergy.

As a result of the people's long struggle against foreign invaders, France was liberated. The monarchy used this victory for its own purposes, but the position of the victorious people remained difficult.

In the second half of the 15th century. Thanks to the efforts of Louis XI, France became politically unified. The country's economy developed, science and education improved, trade relations were established with other states and especially with Italy, from which culture penetrated into France. In 1470, a printing house was opened in Paris, where, along with other books, they began to print the works of Italian humanists.

The art of book miniatures is developing, in which mystical and religious images were replaced by realistic ideas about the world around us. Those already mentioned above work at the court of the Duke of Burgundy talented artists- Limburg brothers. Famous Dutch masters worked in Burgundy (painters van Eyck brothers, sculptor Sluter), so in this province the influence of the Dutch Renaissance is noticeable in the art of French masters, while in other provinces, for example in Provence, the influence of the Italian Renaissance increased.

One of the largest representatives of the French Renaissance was the artist Enguerrand Charonton, who worked in Provence, who painted monumental and complex works. compositional construction canvases in which, despite the religious theme, clearly expressed interest in man and the reality around him (“Madonna of Mercy”, “Coronation of Mary”, 1453). Although Sharonton’s paintings were distinguished by their decorativeness (refined lines connecting into a fanciful ornament, symmetry of the composition), an important place in them was occupied by detailed everyday scenes, landscape, human figures. On the faces of the saints and Mary, the viewer can read the feelings and thoughts that possess them, and learn a lot about the character of the heroes.

The same interest in the landscape, in carefully conveying all the details of the composition, distinguishes the altar works of another artist from Provence - Nicolas Froment (“The Raising of Lazarus”, “The Burning Bush”, 1476).

The features of the new in French art were especially clearly manifested in the work of artists of the Loire school, who worked in the central part of France (in the Loire River valley). Many representatives of this school lived in the city of Tours, where in the 15th century. was the residence of the French king. One of the most significant painters of this era, Jean Fouquet, was a resident of Tours.

Jean Fouquet

Jean Fouquet was born around 1420 in Tours into the family of a priest. He studied painting in Paris and, possibly, in Nantes. He worked in Tours as a court artist to King Charles VII, then Louis XI. He had a large workshop in which orders from the royal court were carried out.

Fouquet lived for several years in Italy, in Rome, where he became acquainted with the work of Italian masters. But, despite the fact that in his works, especially his early ones, the influence of Italian and Dutch art is noticeable, the artist quickly developed his own, unique style.

Fouquet's art manifested itself most clearly in the portrait genre. The portraits created by the artist of Charles VII and his ministers are realistic and truthful, there is neither flattery nor idealization in them. Although the manner of execution of these works is in many ways reminiscent of the paintings of Dutch painters, Fouquet's portraits are more monumental and significant.

Most often, Fouquet depicted his models in moments of prayer, so the heroes of his works seem immersed in own thoughts, they seem not to notice either what is happening around them or the audience. His portraits are not distinguished by ceremonial pomp and luxury of accessories; the images in them are ordinary, prosaic and gothically static.

The portrait of Charles VII (c. 1445) bears the inscription: “Most Victorious King of France.” But Fouquet portrayed the king so reliably and truthfully that there is absolutely no indication of his victoriousness: the picture shows a frail and ugly person, in whose appearance there is nothing heroic. The viewer sees before him an egoist, fed up with life and tired of entertainment, with small eyes, a large nose and fleshy lips.

The portrait of one of the most influential courtiers of the king, Juvenel des Urzens, is also truthful and even merciless.
(c. 1460). The painting depicts an obese man with a swollen face and a smug look. The portrait of Louis XI is also realistic. The artist did not try to embellish his models in any way; he depicted them exactly as they were in life.

This is confirmed by numerous pencil drawings, which preceded pictorial portraits.

Fouquet's masterpiece was a diptych written around 1450, one part of which depicts Etienne Chevalier with St. Stephen, and on the other - Madonna and Child Jesus. Maria amazes with her grace and calm beauty. The pale bodies of the Madonna and Child, the blue-gray dress and ermine robe of Mary contrast sharply with the bright red figures of the little angels surrounding the throne. Clear lines, laconic and strict coloring of the painting give the image solemnity and expressiveness.

The images of the second part of the diptych are distinguished by the same strict clarity and inner depth. His characters are thoughtful and calm, their appearances reflect bright character traits. Stefan stands freely and simply, depicted as real person, not a saint. His hand rests protectively on the shoulder of a slightly constrained Etienne Chevalier, who is represented by the artist at the moment of prayer.

The Chevalier is an elderly man with a face riddled with wrinkles, a hooked nose and a stern look in small eyes. This is probably exactly what he looked like in life. Like the painting with the Madonna, this part of the diptych is distinguished by the integrity of the composition, the richness and sonority of the color, based on red, golden and lilac shades.

Miniatures occupy a large place in Fouquet's work. These works by the artist are very similar to the works of the Limburg brothers, but are more realistic in their depiction of the surrounding world.

Fouquet created wonderful illustrations for the “Great French Chronicles” (late 1450s), Etienne Chevalier’s Book of Hours (1452-1460), Boccaccio’s “Novellas” (c. 1460), Josephus’s “Antiquities of the Jews” (c. 1470). In miniatures depicting religious, ancient scenes or Italian life, one can discern contemporary artist French cities with quiet streets and large squares, meadows, hills, river banks of the painter’s beautiful homeland, wonderful architectural monuments France, including Notre Dame Cathedral, Sainte-Chapelle.

Miniatures almost always contain human figures. Fouquet loved to depict scenes of peasant, city and court life, and episodes of battles from the recently ended war. On some miniatures you can see portraits of the artist’s contemporaries (“Representation of Our Lady by Etienne Chevalier”).

Fouquet is a talented chronicler; his works describe historical events with amazing accuracy, detail and truth. This is the miniature “The Trial of the Duke of Alençon in 1458,” representing more than two hundred characters on one sheet. Despite huge amount figures, the image does not merge, and the composition remains clear and crisp. The characters in the foreground seem especially alive and natural - the townspeople who came to watch the trial, the guards holding back the pressure of the crowd. The color scheme is very successful: the central part of the composition is highlighted by the blue background of the carpet that covers the seat of the trial. Other carpets with beautiful patterns, tapestries and plants emphasize the expressiveness of the miniature and give it special beauty.

Fouquet's works testify to their author's ability to masterfully convey space. For example, his miniature “St. Martin" (Etienne Chevalier's Book of Hours) depicts the bridge, embankment, houses and bridges so accurately and authentically that it is easy to reconstruct the appearance of Paris during the reign of Charles VII.

Many of Fouquet’s miniatures are distinguished by their subtle lyricism, which is created thanks to the poetic and calm landscape (sheet “David learns of the death of Saul” from “Antiquities of the Jews”).

Fouquet died between 1477-1481. Very popular during his lifetime, the artist was quickly forgotten by his compatriots. His art received a worthy assessment only many years later, in late XIX V.

One of the most famous artists of the late 15th century. was Jean Clouet the Elder, also known as the Master of Moulins. Until 1475 he worked in Brussels, and then moved to Moulins. Around 1498-1499 Jean Clouet the Elder performed his most significant work - a triptych for the Moulins Cathedral, on the central door of which the scene “Our Lady in Glory” is presented, and on the side - portraits of customers with patron saints.

The central part depicts the Madonna and Child, above whose head angels hold a crown. Probably, Clouet used a French girl, fragile and pretty, as a model for the artist’s image of Maria. At the same time, the abstraction of the author's concept and decorative effects (concentric circles around Mary, angels forming a garland along the edges of the canvas) give the work some resemblance to Gothic art.

Of great interest are the beautiful landscapes that Jean Clouet the Elder places in compositions with religious themes. Next to the figures of saints in these works are portrait images of customers. For example, in the canvas “The Nativity” (1480), to the right of Mary you can see Chancellor Rolin folding his hands in prayer.

In the second half of the 15th century. Simon Marmion also worked in France, performing a number of altar compositions and miniatures, among which his most famous work is illustrations for the “Grand French Chronicles”, and Jean Bourdichon, a portrait painter and miniaturist who created wonderful miniatures for the Book of Hours of Anne of Breton.

The largest artist of this time was Jean Perreal, who headed the Lyon school of painting. He was not only an artist, but also a writer, architect, and mathematician. His fame went beyond France and spread to England, Germany, and Italy. Perreal served under King Charles VIII and Francis I, and in Lyon he served as a construction expert. A number of his portrait works have been preserved, including the portrait of Mary Tudor (1514), Louis XII, and Charles VIII. One of Perreal's best works is the charming and poetic "Girl with a Flower." Also interesting are his paintings of the cathedral in Puy, on which, along with religious and ancient images, the artist placed portraits of French humanists, among them the image of Erasmus of Rotterdam stands out.

At the beginning of the 16th century. France was the largest (by area and population) state in Western Europe. By this time, the situation of the peasants had been somewhat eased, and the first capitalist forms of production had appeared. But the French bourgeoisie had not yet reached the level to occupy positions of power in the country, as was the case in Italian cities in the 14th-15th centuries.

This era was marked not only by transformations in the economics and politics of France, but also by the widespread dissemination of Renaissance humanistic ideas, which were most fully represented in literature, in the works of Ronsard, Rabelais, Montaigne, and Du Bellay. Montaigne, for example, considered art the main means of educating a person.

As in Germany, the development of art was closely connected with the reform movement directed against the Catholic Church. Peasants dissatisfied with their situation, as well as the urban lower classes and the bourgeoisie took part in this movement. After a long struggle it was suppressed, Catholicism retained its position. Although the Reformation only had a limited impact on art, its ideas penetrated among humanist artists. Many were Protestants French painters and sculptors.

The centers of Renaissance culture were cities such as Paris, Fontainebleau, Tours, Poitiers, Bourges, and Lyon. King Francis I played a major role in the dissemination of Renaissance ideas, inviting French artists, poets, and scientists to his court. Leonardo da Vinci and Andrea del Sarto worked at the royal court for several years. Poets and humanist writers united around Francis’ sister, Margarita of Navarre, who was engaged in literary activities, promoting new views on art and the world order. In the 1530s. Italian Mannerists founded a school of secular painting in Fontainebleau, which had a significant influence on the development of French fine art.

An important place in the painting of France in the first half of the 16th century. occupied by the art of artists Giovanni Battista Rosso, Niccolo del Abbate and Francesco Primaticcio invited from Italy to paint the royal palace at Fontainebleau. Central location their frescoes featured mythological, allegorical and historical subjects, which included images of nudes female figures, which were not found in the paintings of French masters of this time. The refined and graceful, although somewhat mannered, art of the Italians had a great influence on many French artists, who gave rise to a movement called the Fontainebleau school.

Of great interest portrait art this period. French portrait painters continued the best traditions of the masters of the 15th century, and above all Jean Fouquet and Jean Clouet the Elder.

Portraits were widespread not only at court; pencil images served as modern photographs in many French families. These drawings were often distinguished by their virtuosity of execution and authenticity in conveying human character traits.

Pencil portraits were popular in other European countries, for example, in Germany and the Netherlands, but there they played the role of a sketch that preceded a painting portrait, and in France such works became an independent genre.

The largest French portrait painter of this era was Jean Clouet the Younger.

Jean Clouet the Younger

Jean Clouet the Younger, son of Jean Clouet the Elder, born c. 1485 Father became his first painting teacher. Little information about the artist’s life has been preserved; it is only known that from 1516 Jean Clouet the Younger worked in Tours, and from 1529 in Paris, where he held the position of court artist.

The portraits of Jean Clouet the Younger are surprisingly authentic and truthful. These are the pencil images of the courtiers: Diane of Poitiers, Guillaume Gouffier, Anne Montmorency. The artist painted some of the king’s associates more than once: three portraits of Guyot de Genouillac, a participant in the Battle of Marignano, executed in 1516, 1525 and 1526, and two portraits of Marshal Brissac, dating back to 1531 and 1537, have survived to this day. One of his best pencil portraits is the image of the Comte d’Etang (c. 1519), in which the master’s desire to penetrate into the depths is noticeable
inner world person. The portrait of Erasmus of Rotterdam (1520) is also remarkable, surprisingly vital and spiritual.

Jean Clouet the Younger had excellent command not only of a pencil, but also of a brush. This is proven by the few paintings that have survived to this day. Among them is a portrait of the Dauphin Francis (c. 1519), Duke Claude of Guise (c. 1525), Louis de Cleves (1530).

The images in the solemn ceremonial portraits of little Charlotte of France (c. 1520) and Francis I on horseback (1540) are somewhat idealized. Of great interest is the intimate portrait of Madame
Canapelle (c. 1523), depicting a sensual beautiful woman with a sly smile on his tender lips, and a simple and stern portrait of an unknown man with a volume of Petrarch in his hand.

Some researchers believe that the portrait of Francis I, currently kept in the Louvre, was painted by Jean Clouet the Younger. This version is confirmed by a drawing made by the artist, although it is possible that it served as a model for one of Jean Clouet the Younger’s students (for example, his son Francois Clouet) to create a picturesque portrait of the king.

The Louvre portrait of Francis I combined solemnity, decorativeness and the desire to reflect the individual features of the model - the knight king, as Francis was called by his contemporaries. The splendor of the background and the rich attire of the king, the brilliance of the accessories - all this gives the picture splendor, but does not overshadow the diverse range of human feelings and character traits that can be read in the look of Francis: treachery, vanity, ambition, courage. The portrait showed the artist's observation skills, his ability to accurately and truthfully notice the unique thing that distinguishes one person from another.

Jean Clouet the Younger died in 1541. His work (especially his drawings) had a great influence on numerous students and followers, among whom perhaps the most talented was his son François Clouet, whom Ronsard in his “Elegy to Jean” (Jean’s contemporaries called all of them representatives of the Clouet family) called “the honor of our France.”

Francois Clouet

François Clouet was born around 1516 in Tours. He studied with his father, Jean Clouet the Younger, and helped him in fulfilling orders. After his father's death, he inherited his position as court painter to the king.

Although the influence of Jean Clouet the Younger, as well as Italian masters, is noticeable in the work of François Clouet, his artistic style distinguished by its originality and strong personality.

One of the best works of François Clouet is the painting “Bathing Woman” (c. 1571), which in its manner of execution is a little reminiscent of the painting of the Fontainebleau school. At the same time, unlike the mythological compositions of this school, it gravitates towards portrait genre. Some art historians believe that the painting depicts Diane of Poitiers, while others believe that this is the beloved of Charles IX, Marie Touchet. The composition contains genre elements: the painting depicts a woman in a bathtub, next to whom stands a child and a nurse with a baby in her arms; in the background is a maid heating water for bathing. At the same time, thanks to the special compositional structure and obvious portraiture in the interpretation of the image of a young woman looking at the viewer with the cold smile of a brilliant society lady, the canvas does not give the impression of an ordinary everyday scene.

The remarkable skill of François Clouet is evident in his portrait works. His early portraits in many ways reminiscent of the works of his father, Jean Clouet the Younger. In more mature works one can feel original manner French master. Although for the most part these portraits are distinguished by pomp and solemnity, the brilliance of accessories and the luxury of costumes and draperies do not prevent the artist from presenting to the viewer the vividly individual characteristics of his models.

Several portraits of Charles IX painted by François Clouet have survived. In an early pencil portrait from 1559, the artist depicted a smug teenager, looking importantly at the viewer. The drawing from 1561 shows a withdrawn, slightly shackled young man, dressed in a formal suit. The picturesque portrait, executed in 1566, shows the viewer Charles IX in full growth. In his fragile figure and pale face, the artist noticed the main traits of his character: indecision, lack of will, irritability, selfish stubbornness.

One of the most remarkable works of French art of the 16th century. The portrait of Elizabeth of Austria, painted by François Clouet around 1571, became a picturesque portrait. The painting depicts a young woman in a magnificent dress, decorated with sparkling jewels. Her beautiful face is turned towards the viewer, and her expressive dark eyes look wary and distrustful. The richness and harmony of color make the canvas truly a masterpiece of French painting.

An intimate portrait was painted in a different manner, in which François Clouet depicted his friend, the pharmacist Pierre Cute
(1562). The artist placed the hero in his usual office environment, near the table on which the herbarium lies. Compared to the previous work, the painting is distinguished by a more restrained color scheme, built on a combination of golden, green and black shades.

Of great interest are the pencil portraits of François Clouet, among which the portrait of Jeanne d'Albret stands out, representing an elegant young girl, in whose gaze the viewer can assume a strong and decisive character.

In the period from 1550 to 1560, François Clouet created many graphic portraits, including beautiful drawings depicting little Francis II, the lively and charming girl Marguerite of Valois, Mary Stuart,
Gaspard Coligny, Henry II. Although some images are somewhat idealized, main feature portraits remain their realism and truthfulness. The artist uses a variety of techniques: sanguine, watercolor, small and light strokes.

François Clouet died in 1572 in Paris. His art had a great influence on contemporary artists and graphic artists, as well as French masters of subsequent generations.

Corneille de Lyon, who worked in Lyon, was an excellent portrait painter, who painted subtle and spiritual female images(“Portrait of Beatrice Pacheco”, 1545; “Portrait of Queen Claude”), distinguished by their almost miniature execution and subtle glazes and sonorous colors.

Simple and sincere children's and male portraits Corneille de Lyon is characterized by the ability to reveal the depth of the model’s inner world, the truthfulness and naturalness of poses and gestures (“Portrait of a Boy”, “Portrait of an Unknown Man with a Black Beard”).

From the middle of the 16th century. Talented pencil portrait artists worked in France: B. Foulon, F. Quesnel, J. Decourt, who continued the traditions of the famous Francois Clouet. Excellent portrait painters who worked in graphic techniques were the brothers Etienne and Pierre Dumoustier.

The Renaissance is a phenomenal phenomenon in the history of mankind. Never again has there been such a brilliant outbreak in the field of art. Sculptors, architects and artists of the Renaissance (their list is long, but we will touch on the most famous), whose names are known to everyone, gave the world priceless Unique and exceptional people who showed themselves not in one field, but in several at once.

Early Renaissance painting

The Renaissance era has a relative time frame. It began first in Italy - 1420-1500. At this time, painting and all art in general are not much different from the recent past. However, elements borrowed from classical antiquity begin to appear for the first time. And only in subsequent years, sculptors, architects and artists of the Renaissance (the list of which is very long) were influenced modern conditions life and progressive trends are finally abandoned medieval foundations. They boldly take on board best samples ancient art for their works, both in general and in individual details. Their names are known to many; let’s focus on the most prominent personalities.

Masaccio - the genius of European painting

It was he who made a huge contribution to the development of painting, becoming a great reformer. The Florentine master was born in 1401 into a family of artistic artisans, so a sense of taste and the desire to create were in his blood. At the age of 16-17 he moved to Florence, where he worked in workshops. Donatello and Brunelleschi, great sculptors and architects, are rightfully considered his teachers. Communication with them and the skills adopted could not but affect the young painter. From the first, Masaccio borrowed a new understanding of the human personality, characteristic of sculpture. The second master has the basics. Researchers consider the “Triptych of San Giovenale” (in the first photo), which was discovered in a small church near the town where Masaccio was born, to be the first reliable work. The main work is the frescoes dedicated to the life story of St. Peter. The artist participated in the creation of six of them, namely: “The Miracle of the Statir”, “Expulsion from Paradise”, “Baptism of Neophytes”, “Distribution of Property and Death of Ananias”, “Resurrection of the Son of Theophilus”, “St. Peter Heals the Sick with His Shadow” and "St. Peter in the Pulpit."

Italian artists of the Renaissance were people who devoted themselves entirely to art, not paying attention to ordinary everyday problems, which sometimes led them to a poor existence. Masaccio is no exception: the brilliant master died very early, at the age of 27-28, leaving behind great works and a large number of debts.

Andrea Mantegna (1431-1506)

This is a representative of the Paduan school of painters. He received the basics of his craft from his adoptive father. The style was formed under the influence of the works of Masaccio, Andrea del Castagno, Donatello and Venetian painting. This determined the somewhat harsh and harsh manner of Andrea Mantegna compared to the Florentines. He was a collector and connoisseur of cultural works of the ancient period. Thanks to his style, unlike any other, he became famous as an innovator. His most famous works: “Dead Christ”, “Triumph of Caesar”, “Judith”, “Battle of the Sea Deities”, “Parnassus” (pictured), etc. From 1460 until his death he worked as a court painter for the Dukes of Gonzaga.

Sandro Botticelli(1445-1510)

Botticelli is a pseudonym, his real name is Filipepi. He did not choose the path of an artist right away, but initially studied jewelry craftsmanship. Firstly independent work(several Madonnas) the influence of Masaccio and Lippi is felt. Later he also made a name for himself as a portrait painter; the bulk of orders came from Florence. The refined and sophisticated nature of his works with elements of stylization (generalization of images using conventional techniques - simplicity of form, color, volume) distinguishes him from other masters of that time. A contemporary of Leonardo da Vinci and the young Michelangelo, he left a bright mark on world art (“The Birth of Venus” (photo), “Spring”, “Adoration of the Magi”, “Venus and Mars”, “Christmas”, etc.). His painting is sincere and sensitive, and his life path is complex and tragic. The romantic perception of the world at a young age gave way to mysticism and religious exaltation in adulthood. The last years of his life Sandro Botticelli lived in poverty and oblivion.

Piero (Pietro) della Francesca (1420-1492)

Italian painter and another representative of the era early Renaissance originally from Tuscany. The author's style was formed under the influence of the Florentine school of painting. In addition to his talent as an artist, Piero della Francesca had outstanding abilities in the field of mathematics, and devoted the last years of his life to it, trying to connect it with high art. The result was two scientific treatises: “On Perspective in Painting” and “The Book of Five the right bodies" His style is distinguished by solemnity, harmony and nobility of images, compositional balance, precise lines and construction, and a soft range of colors. Piero della Francesca had an amazing knowledge of the technical side of painting and the peculiarities of perspective for that time, which earned him high authority among his contemporaries. The most famous works: “The History of the Queen of Sheba”, “The Flagellation of Christ” (pictured), “Altar of Montefeltro”, etc.

High Renaissance painting

If the Proto-Renaissance and early era lasted almost a century and a half and a century, respectively, then this period covers only a few decades (in Italy from 1500 to 1527). It was a bright, dazzling flash that gave the world a whole galaxy of great, versatile and brilliant people. All branches of art went hand in hand, so many masters were also scientists, sculptors, inventors, and not just Renaissance artists. The list is long, but the peak of the Renaissance was marked by the work of L. da Vinci, M. Buanarotti and R. Santi.

The Extraordinary Genius of Da Vinci

Perhaps this is the most extraordinary and outstanding personality in the history of world artistic culture. He was a universal man in the full sense of the word and possessed the most versatile knowledge and talents. Artist, sculptor, art theorist, mathematician, architect, anatomist, astronomer, physicist and engineer - all this is about him. Moreover, in each of the areas, Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) proved himself to be an innovator. Only 15 of his paintings, as well as many sketches, have survived to this day. Possessing amazing vital energy and a thirst for knowledge, he was impatient and fascinated by the process of learning itself. At a very young age (20 years old) he qualified as a master of the Guild of St. Luke. His most the most important works steel fresco “The Last Supper”, paintings “Mona Lisa”, “Benois Madonna” (pictured above), “Lady with an Ermine”, etc.

Portraits of Renaissance artists are rare. They preferred to leave their images in paintings with many faces. Thus, controversy surrounding da Vinci’s self-portrait (pictured) continues to this day. There are versions that he made it at the age of 60. According to the biographer, artist and writer Vasari, the great master died in the arms of his close friend King Francis I in his castle of Clos-Lucé.

Raphael Santi (1483-1520)

Artist and architect originally from Urbino. His name in art is invariably associated with the idea of sublime beauty and natural harmony. For enough short life(37 years old) he created many world-famous paintings, frescoes and portraits. The subjects he depicted were very diverse, but he was always attracted by the image of the Mother of God. Absolutely justifiably, Raphael is called the “master of Madonnas,” especially those painted by him in Rome. He worked in the Vatican from 1508 until the end of his life as an official artist at the papal court.

Comprehensively gifted, like many other great artists of the Renaissance, Raphael was also an architect and was also involved in archaeological excavations. According to one version, the latest hobby is directly related to premature death. Presumably, he contracted Roman fever at the excavations. The great master was buried in the Pantheon. The photo is his self-portrait.

Michelangelo Buoanarroti (1475-1564)

The long 70-year-old man was bright; he left to his descendants imperishable creations of not only painting, but also sculpture. Like other great Renaissance artists, Michelangelo lived in a time filled with historical events and upheaval. His art is a wonderful final note of the entire Renaissance.

The master put sculpture above all other arts, but by the will of fate he became an outstanding painter and architect. His most ambitious and extraordinary work is the painting (pictured) in the palace in the Vatican. The area of the fresco exceeds 600 square meters and contains 300 human figures. The most impressive and familiar is the Last Judgment scene.

Italian Renaissance artists had multifaceted talents. So, few people know that Michelangelo was also an excellent poet. This facet of his genius fully manifested itself towards the end of his life. About 300 poems have survived to this day.

Late Renaissance painting

The final period covers the time period from 1530 to 1590-1620. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, the Renaissance is like historical period ended with the fall of Rome in 1527. Around the same time, the Counter-Reformation triumphed in southern Europe. The Catholic movement looked with caution at any free-thinking, including the glorification of the beauty of the human body and the resurrection of the art of the ancient period - that is, everything that was the pillars of the Renaissance. This resulted in a special movement - mannerism, characterized by the loss of harmony of the spiritual and physical, man and nature. But even in this difficult period, some famous artists The Renaissance created their masterpieces. Among them are Antonio da Correggio (considered the founder of classicism and Palladianism) and Titian.

Titian Vecellio (1488-1490 - 1676)

He is rightfully considered a titan of the Renaissance, along with Michelangelo, Raphael and da Vinci. Even before he turned 30, Titian gained the reputation of “king of painters and painter of kings.” The artist mainly painted paintings on mythological and biblical themes; moreover, he became famous as an excellent portrait painter. Contemporaries believed that to be captured by the brush of a great master meant to gain immortality. And this is true. Orders to Titian came from the most revered and noble persons: popes, kings, cardinals and dukes. Here are just a few of his most famous works: “Venus of Urbino”, “The Rape of Europa” (pictured), “Carrying the Cross”, “Crown of Thorns”, “Madonna of Pesaro”, “Woman with a Mirror”, etc.

Nothing is repeated twice. The Renaissance era gave humanity brilliant, extraordinary personalities. Their names are included in world history art in gold letters. Architects and sculptors, writers and artists of the Renaissance - the list is very long. We touched only on the titans who made history and brought the ideas of enlightenment and humanism to the world.

The Renaissance in France had basically the same prerequisites for its development as in Italy. However, in socio-cultural preconditions literary process There were significant differences between both countries. Unlike Italy, where in the northern regions already in the 13th century. A political revolution takes place and a number of completely independent urban republics arise; in France, where bourgeois development at that time was slow compared to Italy, the nobility continued to remain the ruling class.

From all this follows a certain backwardness of the French bourgeoisie in comparison with the Italian or even English and, in particular, its weak participation in the humanistic movement. On the other hand, humanistic ideas found significant support in the circles of the nobility, who came into direct contact with the culture of Italy.

In general, the strong influence of Italy is one of the most important features French Renaissance. The rapid flowering of humanistic thought coincides with the first half of the reign of Francis I (1515-1547). The Italian campaigns, which began under his predecessors and continued by him, greatly expanded cultural relations between the two peoples. Young French nobles, having arrived in Italy, were dazzled by the wealth of its cities, the splendor of its clothes, the beauty of its works of art, and the elegance of its manners. Immediately, the increased import of Italian Renaissance culture into France began. Francis 1 attracted the best to his service Italian artists and sculptors - Leonardo da Vinci, Andrea del Sarto, Benvenuto Cellini. Italian architects build him castles in the new Renaissance style in Blois, Chambord, Fontainebleau. Translations of Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio, etc. appear in large numbers. A large number of Italian words from the field of art, technology, military affairs, social entertainment, etc. Of the Italian humanists who moved to France at this time, the most outstanding was Julius Caesar Scaliger (d. 1558), physician, philologist and critic, author of the famous “Poetics” in Latin, in which he outlined the principles of scientific humanistic drama .

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In parallel, there was an in-depth study of antiquity, which also came partly through Italian media. In the first years of his reign, Francis I ordered the publication of translations of the works of Thucydides, Xenophon and others “for the instruction of the French nobility.” He ordered a translation of Homer’s poems and convinced Jacques Amiot (1513-1593), a teacher of Greek and Latin languages, a translator, to begin his famous translation of Plutarch's Lives.

Francis I wanted to personally lead the French Renaissance in order to guide it and keep it under his control, but in fact he only followed the mental movement of the era. Of his advisers, the true leaders of the movement, first place should be given to Guillaume Bude (Guillaume Bude, 1468-1540), who first held the position of secretary of Francis I, then his librarian. Budet owns a huge number of works in Latin on philosophy, history, philology, mathematics and legal sciences. Budet's main idea was that philology is main basis education, since the study of ancient languages and literature broadens a person’s mental horizons and improves his moral qualities. Much in Budet's views on religion, morality, and education brings him closer to Erasmus of Rotterdam. Budet's biggest undertaking was the plan to create a secular university, carried out by Francis I. According to Budet's plan, teaching in it should be based not on scholasticism and theology, as at the Sorbonne, but on philology. This is how the College de France arose in 1530, which immediately became a citadel of free humanistic knowledge.

The second most important point that determined the fate of the French Renaissance is its special relationship with the Reformation, which was at first in tune with humanism, but then sharply diverged from it.

In the history of French Protestantism, two periods must be distinguished - before the mid-1530s and after. The first Protestants of France were scattered intellectuals of a humanistic way of thinking, who approached all issues critically, including the foundations of religion, but were little inclined to preaching and struggle. The outstanding mathematician and Hellenist Lefebvre d'Etaples (1455-1537), who visited Italy and became imbued with the ideas of Platonism through conversations with Marsilio Ficino and Pico della Mirandola, returned to France to interpret Aristotle in a new way, i.e. turning exclusively to primary sources and trying to penetrate their true meaning, not distorted by scholastic comments. Following this, Lefebvre had the idea of applying the same method to the books of Holy Scripture - and here he discovered that nothing was said in the Gospel about fasting, nor about the celibacy of the clergy, nor about most of the “sacraments”. From here the idea arose for him and his friends to return to the original purity of the evangelical teachings, to create an “evangelical” confession. Delving further into the consideration of the principles of Christianity, Lefebvre in 1512, i.e. five years before Luther spoke, he put forward two propositions that later became fundamental for Protestantism of all persuasions: 1) justification by faith, 2) Scripture as the only basis for religious teaching. To strengthen the new doctrine, Lefebvre published his translation of the Bible - the first to French.

The Sorbonne condemned this translation, as well as the entire new heresy in general. Several of Lefebvre's followers were executed, and he himself had to flee abroad for a while. Soon, however, Francis I rehabilitated him and even appointed him as his son’s tutor. In general, during this period the king favored Protestants and even thought about introducing Protestantism in France. However, in the mid-1530s, there was a sharp turn in his policy, which was caused by the general offensive in Europe of reaction and the associated counter-reformation - a revolution caused by the fear of the ruling classes of peasant uprisings and the too bold aspirations of humanistic thought, which threatened to overthrow “all the foundations " Francis's tolerance for all kinds of freethinking - religious or scientific-philosophical - has come to an end. Executions of Protestants and free-thinking humanists became commonplace. One of the cases of blatant arbitrariness was the burning at the stake in 1546 of the outstanding scientist and typographer Etienne Dolet.

At this very time, French Protestantism entered its second phase. Its head becomes Jacques Calvin(1509-1564), who moved from France to Geneva in 1536, which henceforth became the main center of Calvinism, leading the entire Protestant movement in France. Also in 1536, Calvin finally formulated his teaching in the “Instructions for the Christian Faith,” which originally appeared in Latin and was republished five years later in French. From this point on, contemplative, utopian evangelicalism gives way to stern, militant Calvinism.

The bourgeois essence of the Reformation clearly appears in the teachings of Calvin, who recommends frugality and accumulation of wealth, justifies usury and even allows slavery. The basis of Calvin's doctrine is two provisions - about “predestination” and about the non-interference of God in the life of the world, subject to immutable laws. According to the first of them, every person from birth is destined either to eternal bliss or to eternal torment, regardless of how he behaves in life. He does not know what he is destined for, but he must think that salvation awaits him and with his whole life he must show this. Thus, this doctrine of “predestination” does not lead to fatalism and passivity, but, on the contrary, is an incentive to action.

Followers of Calvin and his basic tenets of predestination and the non-intervention of God develop the doctrine of a “secular calling”, according to which everyone should strive to extract as much profit and benefit as possible from his profession, and of a “secular asceticism”, which prescribes frugality and moderation in the satisfaction of his needs for the sake of increasing their property. Hence the view of work as a “duty” and the transformation of the thirst for accumulation into the “virtue of accumulation.”

Despite the clearly expressed bourgeois nature of Calvinism, it found numerous supporters among those layers of the nobility who did not want to come to terms with absolutism, mainly in the south, which was annexed relatively late (in the 13th century), as a result of which the local nobility had not yet forgotten about their liberties and tried to behave independently. Thus, if in the second quarter of the 16th century. Protestantism spread almost exclusively among the bourgeoisie, and more or less evenly throughout France; then, starting from the middle of the century, it spread intensively among the southern French nobility, the stronghold of feudal reaction. When in the second half of the 16th century. religious wars broke out, it was the Calvinist nobles who fought against absolutism who acted as the organizers and leaders of the uprising; Moreover, at the end of the war, many of them willingly joined Catholicism.

At the same time, the nature of Protestantism is changing, abandoning the principle of freedom of inquiry and becoming imbued with the spirit of intolerance and fanaticism. A striking example is the burning by Calvin in 1553 of Miguel Servetus (1511 - 1553), a Spanish theologian, doctor, natural scientist, accused by him of belonging to the revolutionary sect of Anabaptists.

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In France, divided into two camps - Catholics and Protestants, there was no completely national party, since both fighting sides, to the detriment of their homeland, often acted in alliance with foreign rulers. The Huguenots (as Protestants were called in France), who had no support among the people, constantly called on their co-religionists from Germany, Holland and England for help. As for the Catholics, at first they represented a party of national and religious unity, but over time, especially after the Catholic League was created in 1576, the leaders of the party began to seek support from Spain and even thought about transferring the French crown to the Spanish king Philip II . True patriotism could only be found in those days among the masses: among the peasants or among the urban plebeian masses, who, completely ruined by civil wars and driven to despair, suddenly rose up, like their great-grandfathers in the Hundred Years' War, to beat both the Spanish soldiers and the Germans at the same time. reiters, and most importantly - their own nobles - landowners of any political group and any religion. But these peasant uprisings, of which the largest took place around 1580 and around 1590, could not succeed and were ruthlessly suppressed, often with the help of betrayal and treason.

Humanism had some points of agreement with both parties, but even more divergences. Many humanists were attracted to the Catholic Party by the idea of national unity (Ronsard and other members of the Pleiades), but most of them could not tolerate the narrowness of thought and superstitions of Catholicism. And humanists were repelled from Calvinism by its bourgeois narrow-mindedness and ever-increasing fanaticism. But still, the rationalistic ferment of Calvinism, its heroic spirit, high moral demands and the dream of some ideal structure of human society attracted many humanists to it (Agrippa d'Aubigne, and from an earlier time - Marot). However, the most profound humanists, such greatest writers French Renaissance, like Rabelais, Denerier, Montaigne, eschewed religious strife, equally alien to the fanaticism of both faiths, and most likely inclined towards religious freethinking.

Writers of the French Renaissance, in comparison with early medieval authors, are characterized by an extraordinary expansion of their horizons and a wide range of intellectual interests. The greatest of them acquire the features of a “universal man” typical of the Renaissance, receptive and involved in everything. The most striking example of this is the creativity and activity of Rabelais, a doctor, naturalist, archaeologist, lawyer, poet, philologist and brilliant satirical writer. Greater versatility can also be observed in the works of Marot, Margaret of Navarre, Ronsard, d’Aubigné and others.

Typical features common to more or less all writers of the century are, on the one hand, spontaneous materialism, receptivity to everything material and sensual, on the other hand, the cult of beauty, concern for the grace of form. In accordance with this, new genres are born or old ones are radically transformed. A colorful and realistically developed short story appears (Margarita of Navarre, Denerier), a unique form of satirical novel (Rabelais), a new style of lyric poetry (Marot, then especially Ronsard and Pleiades), the beginnings of secular Renaissance drama (Jodelle), an anecdotal-moral descriptive type of memoirs (Brantome), civil accusatory poetry (d'Aubigné), philosophical "experiments" (Montaigne), etc.

Both poetry and prose of the French Renaissance are characterized by a broader, more realistic approach to reality. The images are more specific and individual. Abstraction and naive edification are gradually disappearing. Artistic truthfulness becomes a measure and means of expressing ideological content.

In French Renaissance several stages must be distinguished. In the first half of the century, humanistic ideas flourished, optimism and faith in the possibility of building a better, more perfect way of life prevailed. Although this mood had been clouded by impending reaction since the mid-1530s, the religious and political schism had not yet had time to fully manifest its destructive effects.

In the second half of the century, in the context of beginning or preparing religious wars, among humanists there are the first signs of doubt and disappointment. Nevertheless, in the third quarter of the century, powerful efforts are being made to create a new, completely national poetry and a rich national language. Starting from the 1560s, the crisis of humanism reached its full strength, and literature reflected, on the one hand, the battles and fermentation of minds caused by civil wars, and on the other hand, in-depth quests that prepared for later forms of social and artistic consciousness.

Questions and tasks

1. At what time does the Renaissance begin in France?
2. What are the specifics of the origin and development of the Renaissance in France in comparison with Italy?
3. What was the role of Francis I in the development of the French Renaissance?
4. Using reference books and encyclopedias, get an idea of what the Reformation and Calvinism are.
5. What are characteristic features worldview and creativity of representatives of the French Renaissance?
6. Make a table of the stages of the Renaissance in France, reflecting in it: 1) historical events; 2) main ideas; 3) brief description the most significant authors; 4) names and dates of the main works.

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